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Saturday, July 28, 2012

NATURAL DISASTERS AND THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS

By Ibaniba Briggs-Iti
A paper delivered during the 41st Annual National Conference/Scientific Workshop f Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN] in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, March, 2008


Health care service delivery is a major factor in the sustenance and development of any nation.
States and the international community as a whole recognize this situation and see it as a challenge to harness all necessary available machinery within their jurisdictions to meet this need.

The United Nations for instance states as one o its objectives to co-operate in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian global problems. Consequently the Economic and Social Council which is one of the organs of the organization has established well over fifteen agencies and organizations as a functional response to meeting the needs of peoples of the world. Amongst these specialist organizations are WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNFDAC, FAO, UNEP, UNDLP etc that specifically cater for the health needs of the people.

Back home in Nigeria, the Federal Ministry of Health which is the highest body responsible for provision of health services set for itself laudable objectives and about “2 1 point” responsibility which generally encompass provision o material and human resources, coordinating and supervising health programme, participating in inter-sectoral and inter-ministerial collaborations, making of health laws and policies amongst others to meet the health needs of Nigerians.
The federal government has also established several agencies and parastatals to support and complement the functions of FMOH. Some of the agencies so established are NAFDAC, NPHCDA, NHIS, NPI, SON, PAFA, NACA, NDLEA.

Private voluntary organizations, international governmental and other non governmental organizations have also emerged to join the league of organizations established to promote health. USAID, CIDA, ICRC, NRCS, PPFN, Rotary International, WCC, Rochas Okorocha’s Foundation, Kanu Nwankwo Health Foundation are examples.

Health care service delivery generally includes provision of institutional, facilities and man-power resources.

In the aspect of provision of human resources or manpower, the health sector has a chain of professionals in its service. They include Medical Practitioners, Nurses, Pharmacist, Laboratory Scientists, Environmental Health Practitioners and Community Health Practitioners etc.

Each of these professional groups has their specific roles to play in the achievement of the holistic goal of the health sector.

The Environmental Health Officer (EFIO) or practitioner is one of the oldest personnel in the health sector. His emergence dates back to the colonial era and has faced dangers in course of passing through the various stages of metamorphosis to the present day professional that he is.

The modern EHO is educated with diversities of knowledge and skills, is controversial and the envy of other sister professional groups in the sector.
The Environmental Health Officers (Registered) Act of 2000 provides for the registration and practice of persons if the profession. With the governing council created by the law of 2000 and the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria (EHlOAN) which is set to co-ordinate and regulates the activities of members, the today 13110 is set on the path of expertise and relevance.
To be able to keep with the pace, EHOAN is organizing this programme tagged “BAYELSA 2008”, which is the 4 in the series, and the purpose is to sensitize and energize members of the profession. This year’s theme is “Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects”.

It should be noted that indeed there are challenges and prospects facing the professional group. How these challenges threaten the relevance of the group and how this would be tackled should be a concern for all as well as the ability of it to appropriate the prospects that stand before all.

It is believed that at the end of this conference and workshop, fresh achievable strategies would emerge to this effect.
Six papers have at been earmarked to be delivered:
• Water Sanitation as a Key Strategy Towards Achieving the Goals of International Year of Sanitation (IYS).
• Food Sanitation and its Implications on Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria.
• Natural Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners.
• Malaria Prevention Through Environmental Sanitation: A key Strategy for the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.
• The Essentials o Effective Waste Management as A Tool For The Enhancement of International Year of Sanitation (IYS) in Nigeria.
• Implementation of National Environmental Sanitation Policy: The Journey so far.

This paper titled “National Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners will examine the role of EHOS in the management of natural disasters and objectives are as follows:
a. To explain types Natural disasters
b. To identify organizations and agencies involved in managing natural disasters.
c. To explain the composition and functions of disaster response teams.
d. To analyze the role of the EHO in management of natural disasters in Nigeria.
By way justifying the need of this paper, it is worthy to note that it is on record that millions of people die as a result of natural disaster.

Tangiwai volcanic eruption disaster for example killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in 1985, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Parkistan.

Disaster incidences have been increasing astronomically over time, in the 1980’s there were only about 100 recorded hydrological disasters per year but the number has risen to over 300 a year since 2000 (source: World Disaster Report 2006).

It is therefore expedient that the management of such situations be tackled seriously. [ the El 10 can be relevant in this business of disaster management is one of the targets of this conference.


MEANING AND TYPES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural Disaster has been defined as the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake and landslide) which moves from potential into au active phase and as a result affects human activities causing financial, structural and human losses.
Human vulnerability element is incorporated into the definition in some cases stating thereby that disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability.

Natural Hazard is a situation which has the potential to create an event that has an effect oil people. Natural hazards result from natural processes in the environment and some natural hazards are related e.g earthquakes can result in tsunamis; drought can lead directly to famines and diseases.

The National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) Act (1999) defines natural or other disasters as including any disaster ansing from crisis, epidemic, drought, flood, earthquake, storm, train, roads, aircraft, oil spillage or other accident and mass deportation or repatriation of Nigerians from any other country.

Natural hazards may be classified into the Following:
• Geological
(Ava kinche, Earthquake, Lahars, Landslide, Mudliows, Sinkholes, Volcanic eruptions).
• Hydrological
(Flood, Limnic eruption, mealstrom, seiche tsunami).
• Climate
(Blizzard, drought, hailstorm, Heat wave, hurricanes, tropical cyclones, typhoons, Ice storm, tornado).
• Fire (wild fire)
• Health and disease
• Space
(Solar flare, impact event)

Types of Natural Disasters
• Avalanche
This occurs when large snow mass slides down a mountain slide into a slope. In an avalanche, lots of’ material or mixtures of different types fall or slide rapidly under the force of gravity.
• Earthquake
This occurs as a result of sudden release of’ stored energy that radiates seismic waves. At the earth’s surface, earthquake may manifest themselves by shaking or displacement of’ the ground. Many earthquakes occur each day but are not large enough to cause to- significant damage.
 The. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake which is the second largest earthquake recorded in history claimed about 229,000 people.
 2O0 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Pakistan
• Lahar
Lahar is a type of natural disaster closely related to a volcanic eruption and involves a large amount of material including mud, rock and ash sliding down the side of the volcano at a rapid pace. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds and kill thousands of people.
 Tangiwai disaster killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in l98


• Landslides/Mud Flows
A Landslide is a disaster closely related to an avalanche but instead of occurring with snow, it occurs involving actual elements of the ground including rocks, trees, parts of houses and any thing else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by generally instability in the surrounding land.
Mudslidcs or mud flows are a special case of’ landslides in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards. This usually OCCWS after periods of heavy rain.
• Sink holes
It is a localized depression in the surface topography usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to collapse of buildings and other structures.
• Volcanic Eruption
A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power; the erupt ions comes in many forms. They range from daily small erupt R)I is which occur in places like Kilanea in Hawali or extremely infrequent super volcanic eruption.
According to Toba catastrophe theory, 70 — 75 year thousand years ago a super volcanic event in lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottle neck in human evolution.
Flood
Flooding occurs as a result of prolong rainfall including thunderstorms, rapid inciting of large amount of snow or rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream or less frequently the bursting of man — made dams or levees.
 The Huange Ho River Flood in China in 1931 caused between 800,000 and 4,000,000 deaths.
 Yangtze River floods in China in 1978 rendered 14 million people covered much of the country for three weeks resulting in thousands of death leaving the country devastated for years afterwards.
 Tropical/storm Allison in Houston Texas in 2001 was devastating
 Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in 2005 left most of the city under water.
Limnic Eruption
It is also referred to as a “Lake overturn”. A limnic eruption is a rare type of natural disaster in which CO2 suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, live stock and human such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising CO2 displaces waters. Scientist believes landslides, volcanic activity or explosions can trigger such an eruption.
 1984 limnic eruption in Lake Monou in Cameroon causing the death of 37 nearby resident
Tsunami
It is a wave of water caused by the displacement of a body of water. The world is Japanese meaning harbor and wave. Tsunami can be caused by undersea earthquakes.
Blizzard
It is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperature strong winds and heavy blowing snow.
Drought
It is an abnormally dry period when there is not enough water to support agriculture, Urban or environment. Water needs. Extended drought can result in deaths by starvation or diseases and can result in wildfires
 Between 1900-1941 China experienced several cases of droughts killing millions of people.
 Since 2006, Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Queens land have been under drought conditions for five to ten years.
Hailstorm
A Hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thousandstornm produces numerous hailstorms which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorm can be especially devastating to farm fields, running crops and damaging equipment.
• Hailstorm in Munich Germany on August 31, 1986 fell thousands of trees causing millions of dollars in insurance claims
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and Typhoon
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon. A cyclonic storm system forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off the ocean and becomes a storm. The carioles effect causes the storm to spin and a hurricane is declared when the spinning mass of storms attains a wind greater than 74 mph.
Hurricane is used for these phenomenon in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the India, Typhoon in the Western pacific.
• 1970 Bhola cyclone is recorded as the deadliest hurricane
• 2005 Hurricane Katrina which devasted the Gulf Coast of the U.S.
Tornado
A Tornado is a natural disaster resulting from thunderstorm. Tornados are violet rotating colomns of air which can blow at speeds between 50 and 300 mph and possibility higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along sequel lines or other large areas of thunderstorm development. Waster spouts are tornadoes occurring over tropical waters in high rain conditions.
Wild fire
It is an uncontrolled fire burning in wild land areas. Common causes include lightening and drought but wild fires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat to those in rural areas and also wild life.
Epidemics
An outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads at a rapid rate through human population.
A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There have been many epidemics throughout history.
• The 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic killings an estimated 50 million people worldwide
• The 1957-1958 Asian flu pandemic which killed an estimated one million people.
• The 1968-1968 Hong Kong Flu pandemic
• The 2002-2003 SARS pandemic
• The AID epidemic beginning in 1959
• Others are Malaria, Ebola bemorrhage fever, Cholera, Menningitis, Yellow Fever etc.
Impact Event
It is a natural disaster in which an extraterrestrial piece of rock or other material collides with the earth. The exact consequences of a direct earth impact would vary greatly with size of the colliding object, although in cases of medium to large impacts short term climate charge and a general failure of agriculture.
Famine
A social and economic crises that commonly accompanied by wide spread malnutrition starvation, epidemic disease and increase mortality although some famine occur by natural factors, it can and often is a result of economic or military policy that deprives people of food that they require to survive Famines often hit areas like sub-Sahara African and Asia.
Common natural disasters in Nigeria are flooding, erosion and drought. Although natural disasters are situations caused by natural factors some underlying factors have been identified by some experts as being responsible especially in the hydrological disasters. For instance unplanned urbanization in flood prone region increase the likelihood that their towns and villages will be affected by flash floods and coastal floods.
Large areas covered with cement prevents runoff water to get absorbed by the soil thereby causing floods.

ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Disaster management is a global issue. States and non governmental agencies efforts towards this direction are laudable. Programmes and activities have been earmarked to ensure disaster relief and reduce the consequential risks. Some of the organizations and bodies involved in management of natural disaster may be stated as follows
National Level
In Nigeria apart from the direct efforts of the Ministries of Health and Environment, there are established several other bodies which engage in disaster management. Some of them include:
National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)
This is the foremost agency saddled with the responsibility of managing emergencies. The agency has a governing council made up of the following:
• The Vice President (Who is the chairman)
• The secretary to Government of the Federation
• Representatives from the Federal Ministries of Aviation, Foreign Affairs, Health, Internal Affairs, Transport, Water Resources, Works and Housing
• One representative each of the armed forces, the Nigerian Police, the Nigerian Red Cross societies, such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time.
The functions of the agency are as follows:
• To formulate policy on all activities relating to disaster management in Nigeria and coordinate the plans and programme for efficient and effective response to disasters at national level.
• Co-ordinate and promote research activities relating to disaster management at the national level
• Monitor the state of preparedness of the organizations or agencies which may contribute to disaster management in Nigeria.
• Collate data from relevant agencies so as to enhance forecasting, planning and field operation of disaster management.
• Educate and inform the public on disaster prevention and control measures.
• Coordinate and facilitate the provision of necessary resources for search and rescue and other types of disaster curtailment activities in response to disasters distress calls.
• Coordinate the activities of all voluntary organizations engaged in emergency relief operation in any part of the federation.
• Receive financial and technical aid from international and nongovernmental management in Nigeria.
• Collect emergency relief supply from local and foreign sources and from international and non governmental agencies
• Liaise with state emergency management committees established under section and monitor where necessary the distribution of relief materials to disaster victims.
• Process relief assistance to such countries as may be determined from time to time.
• Liaise with the UN Disaster Reduction organization or such other international bodies for the reduction of natural and other disaster
• Prepare the annual budget for disaster management in Nigeria
• Perform such other functions which in the opinion of the agency are its objectives in the act.
The Nigerian Red Cross Society (NRSC)
NRCS is a non governmental organization directly linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
It is an independent humanitarian relief and development organization whose mission is to prevent and alleviate human suffering and is guided in its work by the seven fundamental principles of the movement tagged “The Vienna Proclamation of 1965”. The principles include; Humanity, Impartiality, Neutrality, Independence, Voluntary Service, United and Universally.
Activities of NRCS include:
• Recruitment and training of personnel for rendering of first aid, disaster relief and home nursing.
• Dissemination of information on the ICRC activities and international humanitarian law to target groups such as Red Cross volunteers, the military, the police, teachers and media.
• Family training activities
• Planning and implementing disaster preparedness and response
• Render community services in the areas of
 Health education
 Blood donation
 Primary Health care services
 First aid training and services
 Vacation programme
 Environment project such as construction of latrine.
INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
International agencies involved in natural disaster management include:
a. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
This organization is made up of the following:
 The international committee of the Red Cross
 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies
 National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies totaling about 160.
The functions of ICRC include
 Assist victims of disasters by providing medical care, setting up hospitals and rehabilitation centre.
 Provide appropriate aids as needed such as food, shelter, and clothing
 Run central tracing agency
 Promote assistance to war disabled
 Initiate and promote international humanitarian law ‘
 Carryout studies and research on humanitarian work
 Reunite families split by war
 Visit military prisoners and other detainees
 Arbitrate between warring parties in armed conflict
 Prohibit in human or degrading treatment e.g. hostage taking, torture, summary executions, deportations etc
 Active in conflict resolution, armed and non armed conflict and internal disturbances and tension.
b. Medicines Sans Frontier (MSF)
 Provides health and to victims of wars and natural disasters
c. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
 Fights poverty and diseases and advocates for environmental protection.
d. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHCR)
e. World Bank.
f. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP).
g. World Health Organization (WHO).
WHO is active in emergency and humanitarian actions.
Others include:
 USAID
 Medicine Sans Frontier (MSF) (provides health aid victims of war and natural disasters. Provides aids in chronic emergencies)
 World Food Programme (WFP)
 UNICEF
 CARE USA
 Catholic Relief Services (CRS)
 Food and agriculture organization (FAO) etc.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM.
Composition
A comprehensive emergency response team may be composed of the following:
a. Health Team
 Medical doctors
 Nurse
 Drug dispenser
 Health Educator
 Nutritionist
 Medical records officer
 Environmental Health Officer etc.
b. Environmental management team
 Environmental Health officer
 Civil and other Engineers.
c. Social welfare team
d. Information team
e. Fires control/service team
f. Representative of organizations
g. Security team (Civil Defence Corps/Police).
Functions of Emergency Management team
Functions of emergency response team may be summarized thus.
 Assessment of disaster zone and cases
 Evacuation of victims to temporary settlement
 Render Health services to the needy
 Provision of relief materials such as food, water, clothing drugs to victims
 Provision of Environmental and general sanitation
 Refer serious health cases to hospitals
 Provision of security and safety of victims
 Publicities/report emergency situations
 Seek financial aids for victims.
ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
It is difficult to stand before professionals like you and give instructions on what should be done during emergencies. However a reminder of what is normally done is an easier task to accomplish.
It is therefore intended in this part of the paper to highlight what is already known by all, and this will be done with a persuasive note to all the endeavour to take actions in order to maintain the image brushing ad relevance that the professional group requires at this time.
The role of the Environmental Health Officer in disaster management is to carry out environment process, most particularly to note are:
• The Evacuation stage
• The settlement stage
• The Treatment stage
• The clean up stage
• The provision of supplies stage.
In each of these stage, the EHO is expected to:
• Make observations/carryout inspections
• Detect nuisances
• Abate the nuisances
• Prevent the reoccurrence of nuisances.
The specific environmental health actions to be taken by the EHO are as follows:
• Inspect and determine the suitability of means of transportation.
• Ensure that means are not overcrowded or pose health hazards
• Ensure sanitary waste disposal for victims in transit
• Give health education to victims.
Settlement Stage
• Carryout site/facility inspection before arrival of victims
• Ensure provision of waste disposal facilities
• Ensure adequate waster/electricity supply
• Ensure provision for storage and preservation of food
• Give health education to victims
• Carryout disinfections and disinfestations.
Treatment stage
• Ensure that hospital/medical wastes are sanitarily disposed off
• Carryout disinfection of materials.
Clean up stage
• Zone area for proper cleaning
• Determine appropriate cleanup methods
• Supervise clean up exercise
• Ensure sanitary disposal of waste generated
• Coordinate personnel to be used for the exercise
• Ensure that dead bodies are appropriately disposed.

Provision of Supplies Stage
• Ensure safety of supplies
• Ensure storage and preservation of supplies
• Ensure fair distribution of supplies.
The EHO is expected to play his role in the management of disasters and his ability to take quick and relevant actions in what makes the difference.

CONCLUSION
Quick response to emergency situations save life and reduce mobility rates of victims. It is important therefore that the EHO understands the emergency situation and identify areas that pertain to him and take appropriate actions. In this way he becomes relevance and contributes his best whenever and wherever the call comes.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL AND RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY

By: Rotimi M. A

An invited paper presented at the 39th National Conference/Scientific Workshop of the Environmental Health Officer Assoociation of Nigeria [EHOAN], October, 2003

INTRODUCTION
The principal aim of all sound development is the promotion of human welfare and happiness. It is extremely difficult to set down objective welfare or human happiness, especially the latter. Happiness is essentially a state of mind, but it is generally associated with a feeling of contentment and the knowledge that one’s aspirations are either being fulfilled or stand a reasonable chance of being fulfilled.
No programme of development can be regarded as complete unless it includes at least certain basic human needs whose satisfaction can be regarded as an essential condition for human existence. The achievement of these needs/objectives demands the application of human effort and intelligence. Just as man is the ultimate beneficiary of all development efforts, so also is he the originator of all development programme and goals. Thus, unless man is healthy in mind and body, the development process cannot even begin. Nor can the fruits of development be fully utilized and enjoyed unless those whom they are intended to benefit are in a fit state of health to make use of the resulting benefits and assist in extending them to the rest of the society.
Health and development thus have mutual beneficial effects on each other; but quite plainly health comes first in order of priority. Good health implies not just the absence of illness, but a positive state of well-being in which body and mind are fit and all the faculties are working harmoniously at their maximum level of efficiency. A healthy person needs to be assured of all basic physical requirements of life – good job and safe work place, good food in adequate quantities, reasonable standards of shelter and clothing, adequate and safe water supply, facilities for wastes management and means of social existence. To a large extent the provision of these basic needs turns on the availability of adequate financial intellectual and technological skills for directing these resources along productive and useful channels.
In Nigerian Society of today which is astronomically industrializing and diversifying its economy profound changes are taking place in the environment as is now evident. Some of these changes have beneficial effect on health, safety and socio-economic well-being of our people, whilst some other aspects have demonstrable adverse effects on health.

ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT
It has now become clear beyond any doubt that the task of bringing about a new socio-economic order at the national level is very daunting. And added to this is the Herculean task of achieving, in collaboration with the rest of the international community, and particularly the other Third World regions, fundamental structural changes in national economic relations.
Economic development implies growth and change in a sustained manner. It is closely bound to environmental concerns. Man cannot hope to improve his world without economic growth. But quality of life cannot advance unless the working and living environment is nurtured and valuable resources are protected.
Man uses the natural resources which abound in his environment in a variety of ways to meet his needs. This often results in environmental deterioration; a problem aggravated by rapid population growth and urbanization – resulting in uncontrolled urban growth and expansion of environmentally marginal settlements; and industrialization, with attendant environmental pollution; and deterioration o the rural resource base through deforestation, soil erosion and degradation.
The question that arises is how to establish a harmonious and realistic relationship between man and nature which is a long-standing and largely unresolved one. Following years of mindless onslaught on and depletion, degradation and in some cases complete destruction of environmental resources, leading to real fears as to how long man can hope to survive on this planet without health and safety being endangered, efforts are being made to discover the right approach to man-nature interaction.
In order to ensure that possible negative impacts of development projects are predicted and addressed prior to project take-off and are environmentally sound and sustainable, an Environmental Impact Assessment programme was adopted in December, 1992.
The goals of the EIA include:
- Responsible use and exploitation of natural resources
- Sustainable productivity of ecosystems
- Maintenance of the carrying capacity and the absorptive capacity of air, land and water
- Prevention of the degradation of environmental quality
- Use of appropriate technology
Like most other developing countries, Nigeria had for a long time embraced the concept of rapid industrial growth as the vehicle for overall economic development. Since the 1960s, the various National Development plans have consistently emphasized industrialization as the means of achieving rapid increase in the nation’s productive capacity as well as improving the standards of living of the citizenry. As a result of this pursuit, and with the advent of the oil industry in particular, environmental degradation has been on the increase.
Rapid population growth at a rate of 3.4% per annum is straining the urban environment. The United Nations Development Programme in its 1986 Annual Report has it that one quarter of the world’s people call misery home;
- That nearly 100 millions are actually without shelter, eating and sleeping along public streets in all major metropolitan centres.
- That squatter settlements abound lacking water, sewage facilities, removal of solid waste etc.
These problems are taking a toll on the Nation’s Economy!

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Industrialization is an important life-wire in the economic development of any nation and an important barometer for measuring the nation’s stature in the international community. It provides ready employment opportunities for a good percentage of the population. It facilitates the upliftment of standards of living and social well-being.
Industrialization therefore begets development which is a very desirable end.
There are over three thousand industries in Nigeria today. The operation of these industries varies according to their technological process, size, nature and products, characteristics of the waste produced and the receiving environment of discharged waste. Presently, these industries have been classified into the following ten sectoral groups by the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN), via:
a. Food, Beverages and Tobacco
b. Chemical and Pharmaceuticals
c. Domestic and Industrial Plastic and Rubber
d. Basic Metal, Iron and Steel, and Fabricated Metal Products
e. Pulp, Paper and paper Products, Printing and Publishing
f. Electrical and Electronics
g. Textile, Wearing Apparel and Leather
h. Wood and Wood Products including furniture
i. Non-Metallic Mineral Products
j. Motor Vehicle and Miscellaneous Assembly
Every industrial activity involves the input of raw materials through some mechanical process and the usual result is the finished desired economic good and some unwanted by products or wastes. The wastes come in various forms of solid, liquid or gas.
Inevitable as industrialization is, the siting of industries and the process technology employed in them are sometimes determined by various criteria, some o which are environmentally inappropriate. For example, industrial estates are sometimes established alongside residential areas and large urban centres.
Again, the process technology of some industries often result in unacceptable levels of toxic and dangerous industrial wastes, effluents and emissions.
The most common problems associated with industrial facilities are: air and water pollution, the creation of solid wastes, noise and modification of traditional land use.
Assessment of industrial projects should therefore consider:
- Identifying potentially harmful effects of a particular project on the environment, health and society
- Ensuring that appropriate mitigating measures are incorporated into the project, and
- Preventing unnecessary depletion of domestic natural resources.
Lagos State is Nigeria’s most industrialized state. Reportedly, it accounts for over 60% of the federation’s total industrial investment. According to the Nigerian Industrial Directory, 1994 edition, published by the manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria and the report prepared for and submitted to the Lagos State Ministry of Environment and physical planning by the World Environment System (an Industrial Data Base, 1997) over 2000 industries have been identified in Lagos State.
Two things would immediately strike one concerning the large quantities of industries in Lagos State. The first is that economic activities, employment opportunities etc is high. The second is that pollution from industrial discharge/waste is high as well.
Indeed, pollution has bothered conservationists for decades. It is now of sufficient intensity to concern the public. Economists have turned their attention to the causes, cost, and possible cures for pollution. On the other hand, however, economists are also concerned about economic growth and environmentalists often assert that economic growth is accompanied by pollution of the air, contamination of water supplies, and destruction of wildlife habitats.
To complicate the issue, energy, which is essential to life and to the preservation of the standard of living we most desire, has become increasingly expensive. Unfortunately, to increase the energy supplies we must often aggravate the pollution problem. And when industrial wastes are ill-managed, ther are potential dangers viz:
i. Water Pollution:-
Industrial waste from such industries as breweries, textiles, bottling, pulp and paper, pharmaceutics, meat-packing, dairies, paint, metal finishing, and so on, contain carbonaceous and nitrogenous substances, organic/inorganic matter, toxic chemicals, heavy metals. If such harmful or potentially harmful industrial wastes are dumped in surface dumpsites, or in gulleys, valleys or drainage basins, leachates from them (i.e. liquids from dissolved solid wastes) percolate freely and are swept by rain flood into surface water (such as streams lakes, rivers) and into burst water pipes and nearby underground water system. The result is extensive chemical pollution of water. An example is River Kaduna which plays a very important role as the major sources of water supply and common sink of all water-borne wastes produced by the industries.
This is also true of the stream serving as waste sink to NICHEMTEX in Ikorodu in Lagos Sate. Most other industries along Aromire area (Ikeja), Ijora, Apapa, discharge their effluents and untreated directly into open public drains.
ii. Air Pollution:-
The quality of air is affected by smoke, dust, automobile exhausts and gaseous waste from factories. The important gaseous emulsions from Nigerian Industries are sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen particulate matter, heavy metal dust etc. These gaseous irritate the lungs and pose a serious threat to the health, particularly of older people and children.

Quantitative data are not readily available on air pollution because it is rarely monitored by Government agencies and the industries do not want to monitor it. The two biggest sources of air pollution are vehicular emissions and industrial plants. The population of vehicles in Lagos State is about 500,000 while industries number over 2000.

Air pollution is also a phenomenon of ill-managed waste. Technically, air is said to be polluted when its natural capacity to dilute various atmospheric pollutants is over-burdened. The air gets easily polluted when chemically – laden industrial effort and toxic gaseous emission or dissolving industrial waste solids are released into it.

iii. Land Pollution:-
Land includes all the natural resources used in the production of the things we want i.e. the minerals in the ground, forests, waterfalls, fertile soil etc. Disposal of solid and hazardous waste on land is dangerous when not dealt with in an environmentally sound way. The danger is that these wastes may pollute ground water used or drinking and soils used for grazing and farming. Cost of land is made higher. Unwanted health and environmental impacts such as contamination of soil and possibly of food products grown thereon are potential consequences of improper disposal of hazardous wastes.

Other includes:- Land degradation which sets in motion a chain of events that lead to declining food production and increase children’s malnutrition.
- Creation of an aesthetic blight that harms the natural beauty, historical sites and tourism.
All the above environmental hazards-to human health, animal life, plant life, and the economy show that proper waste management and control is intimately connected with the on-going global concern for sustainable development.
RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
Nigeria’s Population is estimated at 126 million persons by World Health Organization (WHO) and has been increasing annually at 3.4 percent. At this rate the population is set to reach 281 million persons in 2015 and 338 million by the year 2025. As is typical in countries where fertility has been high for a long period of time, (between 4 and 7 children per woman). Nigeria has a very young population. Population projections indicate that in 1985 over 47 percent of the population is under the age of 15. Consequently, Nigeria has a high child dependency ratio which is the proportion of children under 15 to adults in the economically productive ages, is to 64.

Nigeria is experiencing rapid urban growth. In 1960, only two urban centre- Lagos and Ibadan-had more than 500,000 residents; by 1980, 9 cities had more than 1/2million persons. Between 1960 and 1970, the urban population grew by 4.7 percent per year, and between 197o and 1982, the population of the cities grew by 4.9 percent per year. 1980, about 20 percent of the population of Nigeria lived in the urban centres. Rapid urbanization has contributed to poor housing conditions, inadequate water supply, and waste disposal, congestion, high rates of unemployment and underdevelopment, crime and other social problems.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
Every family and individual has a basic right to a decent home and a suitable =living environment. However, large segments of the population in urban and rural areas do not enjoy one or both of these fundamental needs. The realization of a decent home in a suitable living environment requires clean air, pure (good) water and food, adequate shelter and unpolluted land. Also required are freedom from excessive noise and odours, adequate recreation facilities, and convenient services in an environment that provides safety, comfort, and privacy.

Housing is expensive and difficult to find in many urban areas of Nigeria, particularly the capital. Construction has not kept pace with the rapidly expanding population, leading to severe overcrowing. In Lagos, the master plan assumes the following projections of an average of 6.3 persons per household! And with high fertility rate, about 1.6 million new housing units would have been required between 1985 and 2000 simply to accommodate the growth of the population. Another 1.9 million units would be needed between 2000 and 2015 for a total of 3.5 million new units over the 1985-2015 period.
Practically, all urban and rural areas contain substandard, slum and blighted areas. With the movement of large numbers of people to cities, urban areas became congested, desirable housing became unobtainable. Inadequate facilities for transporting people rapidly and cheaply to and from work made it necessary for many people to accept less desirable housing in the cities, close to their work. The inability of the ordinary wage earner to economically afford satisfactory housing left him with choice but to accept what housing was available. Some landlords took advantage of the situation by breaking up large apartments into smaller dwelling units and by constructing cheap housing-of course with the attendant problem of none provision of sanitary offices and wastes management facilities.

In recent years, about 25 percent of households requiring new housing in Lagos have been able to obtain housing through private markets, while the other 75 percent are low income households unable to obtain adequate housing with their own resources.

Slums therefore abound! This may start with the expansion or spill-over of business into the contiguous residential areas, thereby making the housing less desirable. Poor people next door or in the same building, desiring quit and privacy, move. Owners are hesitant to continue maintenance work, causing buildings to deteriorate. The landlord is even ready to convert the building or a segment of it to commercial use. There is therefore a progressive degradation from blight to slum. And as blight spreads so does crime, delinquency, fires and housing decay.

There are also the areas that are slums from the start. The absence or failure to enforce building, sanitary and health regulations leads to the development of “shanty towns” or poor housing areas. Added to this, are cheap, new and converted dwellings and tenements that are poorly located, designed and constructed-just to provide shelter.

In recent years the population growth has been taking place outside the major cities, but the rate of housing construction and rehabilitation has not kept pace with the needs of population growth. The loss of housing due to decay, and demolition further compound the problem.

A notorious feature of our major cities and towns over the years has been haphazard development. Many of the popular towns and districts were unplanned. The direct results of the unplanned developments is that there are no infrastructural services in most of them, and such as exist are grossly inadequate.

In Lagos State, in the past decade, the Government has created a number of Agencies to tackle, among other things, the problems of unplanned development. The New Towns Development Authority has, as part of its functions, control and monitoring of unauthorized developments within Government Estates.

The task force on Environmental Sanitation and special offences assists in removing illegal structures and building without approved plans. The Committee on illegal conversions of residential buildings to other uses is a new creation in the State. It was established in 1994. And in 1996 came the Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency (LASEPA) both having relevance to the problem of unplanned developments.

HOUSING, HEALTH AND SAFETY
Substandard housing trends contribute to the aggravation of health and safety problems; viz:
a. Over crowing and congestion of living yards
b. Inadequate water supply
c. Inadequate or absence of sewage disposal facilities
d. Inadequate waste disposal facilities
e. Poor drainage facilities resulting in pollution of domestic water sources, flooding and dampness of living quarters ‘
f. Poor ventilation and lighting
g. Clustering of living quarters with junk, tins and cans
h. Atmospheric pollution
i. Lack of privacy and recreational facilities
j. Lack of access-ways into the settlement
k. Excessive noise from a variety of sources
l. Transmission of diseases and frequency of physical injuries
m. Unhygienic food handling and storage
n. Harbourage of vectors and hosts of disease
o. Conversion of the home as a workplace with increased health risks from chemicals or accidents
p. Higher morbidity and morbidity rates and the lower life expectancy.

The realization that millions of people lived a life consistent with human dignity, that many people were deprived of basic human requirements such as shelter, water supply, sanitation, employment, health services, education and recreation and the rates of urbanization are increasing while conditions in human settlements are deteriorating a an alarming rate must lead to the decision that national/state/local governments and private organizations must be act to improve the living conditions of the people.

In this connection, the following steps are pertinent:
a. A though study of the housing development situation in the major urban and rural settlements of this country, aimed at an understanding of the nature and magnitude of the housing and settlement problems encountered by the people
b. Enactment/Enforcement of appropriate legislation that will lead to the progressive and incremental realization of the housing rights of the citizens
c. Formulating and adopting a national housing policy that will lead to provision of housing for all with facilities for waste management
d. Provision of such facilities to protect preserve, promote that physical and mental health and social well-being of the people; to prevent and control the incidence of communicable diseases; to reduce environmental hazards to health and to maintain adequate sanitation and public health, to protect the safety of the people and to promote the general welfare.
e. Without tearing down existing buildings, gradual improvements be made, involving as much as possible the participation of the residents in slum areas.

The urgency of coming to grips with the successes and failures in residential development project as it affects health and safety has been heightened by the severe economic and financial strains now affecting many countries. Resources available for development have become scarce. Yet investing to make residential developments more sanitarily efficient and healthy places is a key factor not only in the fate of the urban poor, but in national economic recovery and growth.

The need at this juncture to evaluate the experience of the past decade and identify ways of improving the effectiveness of future residential developments, with particular attention to waste management.
HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPLICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
The common threat running through this paper is that Nigeria can afford sustained industrial and residential development to the extent that it manages wastes in productive and domestic activities. Waste management can reduce physical constraints which hamper economic expansion-in the human environment as well as in the supply of energy, and other critical or scarce resources.

The quality of life depends on human security, safety, comfort and other factors relating to health, pleasure and happiness.

The implications of waste on health and safety include
Waste Creates/increases costs
- Organizing and operating costs
(time, supplies, equipments, power, capital costs)
- Costs borne by the people
Waste Cause Changes
- In physical, social or emotional functioning
- In resource use (inequities in allocation of resources)
- In the quality of life of people e.g. deafness, impairment of hearing
Waste Cause serious public health problems
- Supports the growth of large population of flies (which can transmit typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery etc)
- Encourages the proliferation of rats
- Promotes the prolific breeding of roaches and mosquitoes
- Gives rise to noxious and offensive oddurs
- Gives rise to smog and air pollution
- Causes flooding when dumped on water ways
- Obstructs free flow of traffic when dumped on motorways.
Waste Cause health impairment/death
- Through land degradation which sets in motion a chain of events that lead to declining food production and increase children’s malnutrition. In some parts of the country, some 20%-40% of children under age five are reported to be below 75% of the standard weight for their age
- Through pollution of water bodies from discharge of domestic sewage and industrial waste
- Through air pollution linked with incidence or respiratory and pulmonary diseases
- Destruction of wildlife.
Waste Assaults the senses/diminishes value
- Creation of an aesthetic blight
- Strong objectionable odour
- From slum/blighted housing.
Waste Tends to increase
- Risk of road accidents
- Risk of community health from certain industrial processes e.g. fire explosion, poisoning etc
- Impact on existing health and safety services
- Environmental hazards and deterioration of natural resources
- Exposure to local diseases e.g. malaria.

RECOMMENDATION
Protect the resource base, through:
- Land use planning
- Preventing the discharge of pollutants and sustain development through environmental impact assessment
- Establishment of environmental education that enculturizes hygiene practices
- Beautification of the environmental through tree planning and protection of the greenbelt areas of the country.
Control aggravation of existing hazards by:
- Introducing polluter-pay-principle i.e. an economic disincentive package for environmental restoration on pollution abatement
- Enforcement of environmental legislation programmes which defines the responsibilities of the users of the environment
- Establishment and strengthening of an Environmental Services Department at the Local Government level
- Establishment of institutional framework for environmental lay reporting and data collection, analysis and utilization
- Gradual improvement to slum/blighted areas.

CONCLUSION
For effective management of the environment, contamination of the air, water and land resources must be kept low enough to avoid deleterious effects on human health and welfare.

Future generations will inherit this country after us and will pay for our mistakes and carelessness. We should therefore not fold our aims as if nothing is happening. Every effort must be made to made to counter the deterioration in the quality of life that will occur if the environmental resource base continues to be debased.

Thank you and God bless.

REFERENCES
1. Federal Ministry of Heal (F.M.H) and National Population Bureau 1985. The Effects of Population Factors on Social and Economic Development.
2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1985. The environment/Public Health and Human Ecology
3. United Nations Development Programme (U.N.D.P) 1986. A better Environment for Developing Annual Report.
4. Philip Hardwide et al 1988. An Introduction to Modern Economics
5. World Health Organization (WHO) – Urbanization and its implications for Child Health 1988.
6. Federal Environmental Protection Agency (F.E.P.A)– The Environmental and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 1990.
7. Sanford D. Gordon et al – Introductory Economics 1990.
8. Rotimi Braimoh – Industrial Pollution and Prevention: Implications on Health 1991.
9. Rotimi Braimoh – Environmnetal Pollution: Effects on Community Health 1991.
10. M.A. Ajomo et al – Environmental Law and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 1994.
11. Prof. Adeniyi Osuntogun – Waste Management for Sustainable Development (A Keynote address) 1994.
12. Lagos State Government – Lagos State Environmental Action Plan (LSG) 1997
13. Shelter Rights Initiative – Practical issue in Human Settlements and Health 1997
14. Shelter Rights Initiative – Improving the Living Environment in Slum Settlements 1999

Friday, July 27, 2012

NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a fact of life that at one time or another a community or nation will be faced with an adversity, a calamity, a catastrophe, a disaster or emergency, natural or man-made. Realizing disaster as a fact of life and the need to prepare for its eventuality led the Federal Government to formulate a National Policy on Disaster Management, which is meant to cater for required responsibilities of the Federal, States and Local Governments respectively when disasters occur.

Government at all levels, NGOS and Civil Society Organizations, the private sector, International Development Partners and United Nations Agencies have pursued a wide range of strategies and programmes to prevent and respond to disaster situations. However, these initiatives have been undertaken in a less consistent and harmonious manner and remained reactive and uncoordinated outside a coherent Policy framework.

1.2 OBJECTIVES AND IMPERATIVES OF THE POLICY
In order to guarantee the adherence to the provisions of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the Federal Government initiates, formulates and Implements policies and programmes of activities to make the Nigerian environment peaceful, orderly and conducive for all its citizens. The policies of government are also targeted at preventing, reducing or managing disasters in all their ramifications whenever they occur.

The primary goal of the government in formulating the National Policy is to integrate disaster management in the national development process in order to facilitate quick and coordinated response to such situations as may be required so as to save as many lives as possible when disasters occur bearing in mind that increased safety will promote the use and enjoyment of our environment and economic development.

The policy aims at establishing and strengthening of disaster management institutions, partnerships, networking and main streaming disaster risk reduction in the development process so as to strengthen the resilience of vulnerable groups to cope with potential disasters.

The policy has also highlighted coordination of disaster risk reduction initiatives within a unified policy framework in a proactive manner at all levels of Government.

The wide spread of disaster prone areas in a country as large as Nigeria requires that policy on disaster management should not only vary drastically from one area to another with respect to the same type of disaster and that overlapping jurisdictions do not introduce unusual ambiguities and complexities in the interpretation and execution of policies.

It is also necessary to have a well thought out and coherent programme of disaster management. In this policy, the different roles of each tier of government and other stakeholders are articulated. A policy of this nature shall provide clear rules for predictable behaviour of the unambiguous regulations for the management of disaster and a clearly prescribed pattern of such disaster management with the roles of the different actors clearly defined.

Prior to the formulation of this policy, disaster management at each tier of government had been individualistic. This policy is therefore necessary In order to herald an integrated approach to disaster management. Disasters should be analyzed not in isolation but as extreme situations that are implied on the everyday conditions of the population. They must be placed in the context of the development of the entire social systems in which they occur. ln order to determine its threshold of tolerance and achieve the control of the environment, a country requires a disaster management policy which will cater for:
i. National development planning and disaster management;
ii. Disaster prevention,
iii. Disaster mitigation;
iv. Disaster preparedness;
v. Disaster response; and
vi. Disaster recovery/rehabilitation.

Disaster management is therefore a collective responsibility Of the Federal, State, Local Governments and other stakeholders. Community based organizations and non-governmental organizations should be courted, encouraged and supported to render assistance. The Federal Government’s concern about the non existence of disaster management structure in some States and Local Governments. in the Federation, which has continuously made local problem to assume such a proportion as to become a matter of concern to the Federal Government further contributed to the reasons for putting up this policy.

1.3 MEANING OF DISASTER
Nigeria like any other country is exposed to a wide range of social hazard which could be natural or man made in which the lives of the citizens as well as infrastructures may be endangered or adversely affected. Such hazards could lead to great or sudden misfortune causing severe widespread disruption to normal patterns of life, injury, hardship and adverse effect on health. Furthermore, the event affects the social structure such as destruction or damage to Governance, Legal systems, buildings, communications and essential services. Disaster therefore means a serious disruption of the functioning of the society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses, which exceed the capability of the affected society to cope with using only its own resources.

1.4 DISASTERMANAGEMENT
Disaster management may be defined as those measures which are aimed at impeding the occurrence of a disaster event and for preventing such an occurrence from having harmful effects on communities. Disaster management encompasses a body of policies, regulations and operational activities which exist for dealing with disasters. These include classical management functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. It also involves many organizations which must work together to prevent, prepare for, respond to and promote recovery from the effects of disaster. This implies that there must be institutions or organizations and procedure at the various levels of government to cater for the pre impact and post impact levels of disasters. All the Organizations involved in the management of disaster need to be well coordinated in large country like Nigeria. This made the Federal Government to establish the National Emergency Management Agency as a coordinating agency.

It is clear from these explanations that disaster management is so inclusive that no one individual, group or organization or level of government can be responsible for the entire range of disaster management activities.
1.5 TYPES OF DISASTER IN NIGERIA
The main types of disaster which disaster management organizations may be called upon to manage include:
i. Floods;
ii. Destructive storms;
iii. Drought;
iv. Desertification;
v. Catastrophic gully and coastal erosion
vi. Disease epidemic;
vii. Civil strife;
viii. Fire disasters;
ix. Building collapse;
x. Explosions;
xi. Aviation disasters;
xii. Road accidents;
xiii. Maritime and inland waterways disasters; and
xiv. Earth tremor/land slide.

1.6 COMPONENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The management of the aforementioned disasters entails six interrelated groups of activities. The activities are:
i. National development planning and disaster management;
ii. Disaster prevention;
iii. Disaster mitigation;
iv. Disaster preparedness;
v. Disaster response, and
vi. Disaster recovery.

These six functions which together make up disaster management shall be effectively performed by various levels of government.

1.6.1. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The Federal, States and Local Governments shall be disaster- conscious in their development planning and activities and shall therefore put in place various counter disaster measures and programmes. These measures and programmes shall be designed to ensure that development promotes disasters reduction, does not create new disaster threats and does not worsen existing disaster threats.

These measures and programmes include:
i. Dam construction, to reduce river flooding;
ii. Urban master plans, to reduce urban flooding;
iii. Implementation of the Env1ronme impact Assessment Act, to ensure that development projects do not create new or increase existing disaster threats;
iv. Medical and health plans, to counter threats of disease epidemics, and
v. Promoting ethno-religious harmony amongst its people through conflict transformation, resolution and management.

The problem with these measures is that they are often not faithfully implemented or applied. This applies, in particular, to urban master plans and emergency regulations, which partly explains why we continue to have urban flood disasters and communal clashes in various parts of the country. The three (3) tiers of Government are expected to apply the aforementioned measures meticulously.

1.6.2. DISASTER PREVENTION
Disaster prevention measures are designed to impede the occurrence of a disaster event or to prevent such a disaster event from having a devastating impact on people, infrastructures and the economy. All the natural disasters which occur in Nigeria, with the exception of destructive storms, drought and earth tremors, can be prevented to a greater or lesser degree. For example, disaster preventive measures against flood disasters include:

i. Aforestation, to slow down runoff and promote infiltration of rain water into the soil and to reduce the occurrence and magnitude of floods;
ii. Better land use planning and development control that keep people off areas which are liable to floods;
iii. Dam construction, to even out stream flow;
iv. The construction of drainage canals in low-lying areas to take away storm waters quickly;
v. Stream channelization; and
vi. The provision and maintenance of drainage ditches or gutters in urban areas.

There is the need therefore for the Federal, States, Local Governments and other disaster managers to get the civil populace and agencies concerned joke drainage canals, channelized streams and drainage ditches free of solid waste, which often renders them ineffective.

1.6.2.1. There shall also be put in place measures to prevent:
i. Disease epidemic, e.g. adherence to sanitation laws and regulations;
ii. Civil strife leading to displacement of persons, e.g. constitution of security committees at Federal, State and Local Government Levels and better intelligence gathering system of the Nigeria Police Force and other security agencies;
iii. Fire disasters, i.e. adherence to fire codes;
iv. Building collapse, i.e. adherence to building codes;
v. Aviation disasters, i.e. adherence to civil aviation safety regulations
vi. Road accidents, i.e. adherence to the Highway code;
vii. Maritime and inland waterways disasters, i.e. adherence to safety regulations.
viii. Explosions, i.e. adherence to laws and regulations guiding the handling, use, storage, and transportation of explosives, e.t.c.

Thus, whenever any of these types of disaster occurs, the chances are that someone or some people have flouted existing laws, regulations, codes and procedures and or somebody or some people have failed to enforce these laws, regulations, codes and procedures. The three tiers of government shall therefore ensure compliance with all laws and regulations that are designed to prevent, mitigate and control disasters.

1.6.3. DISASTER MITIGATION
Disaster mitigation measures are specifically designed to reduce or minimize the impact of disasters whenever they occur in Nigeria. The measures are often, but not always, in the form of laws and regulations.
They include:
i. Building codes;
ii. Development control measures;
iii. Safety regulations relating to high rise building and the handling of explosives and other hazardous substances;
iv. Safety codes for land, water and air transportation;
v. Irrigation projects to counter drought and
vi. The establishment of shelterbelts to mitigate the effects of drought and desertification.

The existing regulations which are meant for disaster mitigation are usually not being strictly enforced. The result is that when disasters occur, people, infrastructure and the economy feel their full impact. The three tiers of Government ought to ensure the enforcement of relevant laws and regulations.

1.6.4. DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
Disaster preparedness are activities and measures undertaken in advance to make it easier for all levels of communities and individuals to respond quickly and effectively to disaster events. These measures include among others:
i. The three (3) tiers of Governments shall ensure that First Aid training forms part of the curriculum at all educational levels.
ii. Disaster management contingency plans;
iii. Disaster relief stockpiling such as building materials, blankets, buckets, food items etc;
iv. Early Warning Systems;- This means an organized structure for prediction and disserninations of timely and effective information to allow individuals who may be at risk to take action to avoid or reduce, their risk and prepare for effective response.
v. Emergency communication systems;
vi. Public education and awareness; and
vii. Training programmes for disaster responders;

1.6.4.1. The Federal Government through the Nation
Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) has drawn up a National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP) which has been approved by the Federal Executive Council. The National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP):
i. States the disaster response and recovery actions and responsibilities of the Federal Government and its agencies;
ii. Describes the Federal Government’s response and recovery resources available to support States, Local Governments and communities to save lives, protect public health and safety, protect property and aid victims in their reconstruction efforts after a disaster;
iii. Describes disaster management facilities available in some non-governmental organizations which may be called upon for assistance in times of emergency
iv. Describes the standard operating procedures or disaster response functions of relevant Federal Government Agencies and some non-government organizations;
v. Assigns disaster response functions to vanous government agencies like:- Armed Forces, Nigerian Red Cross Society, Nigeria Police Force, Nigerian Ports Authority, geria Security and Civil Defence Corps, Fire Services, National Airspace Management Agency, n government organizations and companies with relevant capacities as specified in National Disaster Response Plan; and
vi. Provides a coordinating framework hr disaster response with NEMA as its hub.

1.6.4.2. The NDRP is a very important document with which all disaster responders In Nigeria should be familiar with. There is therefore the need for N EMA to continue to aggressively:
i. Mount campaigns to make all stakeholders aware of their responsibilities under the NDRF and enlist their cooperation;
ii. Sensitize and encourage stakeholders to build their disaster response plan and capabilities, and
iii. Put the NDRP to the test in simulation exercises.

The States and Local Governments shall adopt the provisions of the NDRP mutatis mutandis.

Federal, States, and Local Governments shall also maintain a stockpile of disaster relief materials to enable the relevant tier of government respond reasonably and quickly to a disaster. The stockpile shall include but not limited to food items, household utensils, clothing materials, beddings and building materials. The three (3) tiers of Government shall cultivate a policy of maintaining their own stockpiles of resources with which to meet emergencies or have a budget line that will enable them to obtain these resources at short notice.

1.6.5. DISASTER RESPONSE
Disaster response are measures to be taken during or immediately after a disaster impact to save lives, care for the victims, protect properties and effect emergency repairs to infrastructures. These Include:
i. Search and rescue;
ii. Survey and assessment of disaster impact and needs created;
iii. Evacuation of victims; and
iv. Mass care.

1.6.5.1. Despite the existence of many disaster response outfits in Nigeria, both governmental and non-governmental agencies, a number of things were lacking that made response to certain disasters as well as civil’ strife incidents that have occurred in various parts of the country, not as timely and effective as they should have been. These inadequacies include lack of effective coordination, inadequate training, lack of equipment, lack of relief materials and absence of adequate early warning systems. It is hereby proposed by this policy that
i. There shall be effective coordination of the efforts of the numerous disaster responders;
ii. Adequate training of people for search and rescue and relief operations;
iii. There shall be adequate First Aid training for the Nigeria Police Force, Fire Service, Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps, the Armed forces, Federal Road Safety Corps and all other paramilitary structures for effective emergency response,
iv. Equipment such as helicopters, fire tenders with capacity to fight fires in high rise buildings, etc.;
v. Regular simulation of rescue procedures e.g. fire drills etc.;
vi. Availability of relief materials; and
vii. Adequate Early Warning System mechanisms.

1.6.6. DISASTER RECOVER
Recovering from a disaster is the process by which a disaster stricken area returns to its pre disaster state: The three tiers of Government shall rapidly ensure:
i. The restoration of properties, essential services and infrastructure damaged by the disaster; and
ii. Rehabilitation of stricken people or displaced persons so that their trauma Is put behind them and they settle down to their pie-disaster lives and livelihoods.



THE RESPONSIBILITIES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

2.1 ROLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
The Federal Government through the National Emergency
Management Agency shall by this policy perform the following disaster management functions:
a. Formulate policy on all activities relating to disaster management In Nigeria and co-ordinate the plans and programmes for efficient and effective response to disasters at national level;
b. Co-ordinate and promote research activities relating to disaster management at the national level;
c. Monitor the state of preparedness of all organizations or agencies which may contribute to disaster management In Nigeria;
d. Collate data from relevant agencies so as to enhance forecasting, planning and field operations of disaster management;
e. Educate and inform the public on disaster prevention and control measures;
f. Co-ordinate and facilitate the provision of necessary resources for search and rescue and other types of disaster curtailment activities in response to distress call;
g. Co-ordinate and support the activities of non-governmental organizations engaged in disaster management in any part of the Federation;
h. Receive financial and technical aid from international organizations and non-governmental agencies for the purpose of disaster management in Nigeria;
i. Collect emergency relief materials or supplies from local, foreign sources and from international and non-governmental agencies;
j. Distribute emergency relief materials to victims of natural or other disasters including internally displaced persons and assist in the rehabilitation of the victims where necessary;
k. Liaise with State or Local Government Emergency Management Agencies to assess and monitor where necessary the distribution of relief materials to disaster victims,
l. Process relief assistance to such countries as may be determined from time to time;
m. Liaise with alt relevant foreign or International agencies like the United Nations Institutions or such other international bodies for the reduction of natural and other disasters; and
n. Perform such other functions which in the opinion of the NEMA are required for the purpose of achieving the objectives of this policy.

The enabling Act of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) has put in place modalities for its establishment, membership of its Governing Council and other incidental or ancillary matters.

2.2 THEROLEOFTHESTATEGOVERNMENTS
All States in the Federation shall ensure that they put in place legislation setting up a body to be known as State Emergency Management Agency (SEMA). The legislation which shall include provisions that will ensure that Local Governments in the State setup agencies with similar functions shall have among other things the following provisions:
a. Establishment in the state a body to be known as the State Emergency Management Agency (SE MA),
b. The State Agency
• Shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession; and
• May sue and be sued in its corporate name.

There shall also be established for the management of the State Agency, a governing council, hereinafter referred to as “the Council The Council shall consist of
a. The Deputy Governor of the State, who shall be the Chairman,
b. The Secretary to the State Government,
c. ONE representative each from:
• The State Ministry of Women and Social Welfare,
• The State Ministry of Health,
• The State Ministry of Works,
• The State Ministry of Water Resources,
• The state fire service,
• The Federal Airport Authority of Nigerian the State,
• The State Environmental Protection Agency,
• The National Emergency Management Agency
• The Disaster Reaction Unit within the State/geo political zone
• The Nigeria Police Force,
• The Federal Road Safety Corps,
• The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps
• The Nigerian Red Cross Society,
• The National Maritime Authority in coastal States,
• Such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time by the State Government, and
• The head of the State Agency as member/Secretary.
(c). The State functions of the Agency shall include the following:
a. Respond to any disaster within the State and may seek assistance from the National Emergency Management Agency when damage and need assessment are considered beyond the state’s capacity of response,
b. Collect and collate data on disaster in their respective states, and
c. Carry out disaster management activities in the State.



2.3. THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
All Local Government represents the third (3) tier of Government in the Country. This tier shall equally put in place a legislation setting up a body to be known as the Local Government Emergency Management Agency similar to the one at the State Level and in line with the State’s Law on it.
The Local Governments in the Federation shall put in place a legislation setting up an Agency for disaster management. The enabling Bye-Law shall have among other things the following provisions: -
Establishment of a body to be known as the Local Government Emergency Man (LEMA).
The Local Government Agency
(a) Shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession; and
(b) May sue and be sued in its corporate name.

There shall also be established for the management of the Local
Government Agency, a governing Council hereinafter referred to as “the Council”.
The Council shall consist of
a. The Chairman of the Local Government, who shall be the Chairman,
b. The Secretary to the Local Government,
c. The Councilor of Works
d. The councilor of health,
e. The Chairman of Local Governments Traditional Council,
f. The head of information Unit of the Local Government,
g. The head of Social Welfare Unit of the Local Government
h. The Divisional Police Officer
i. One representative each from:
i. The State Emergency Management Agency,
ii. The Disaster Reaction Units within the Local Government Area,
iii. The Federal Road Safety Corps.,
iv. The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps.,
v. The Nigerian Red Cross Society,
vi. Such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time; and
j. The head of the Local Government Emergency Management Agency as Member! Secretary.
The Local Government’s Agency shall:
a. Respond to any disaster within the Local Government and may seek assistance from the State Emergency Management Agency if it deems fit in each circumstance,
b. Collect and collate data on disaster In their respective Local Governments; and
c. Carry out disaster management activities in the Local Government as may, from time to time be recommended by the Agency.


3.1 STRUCTURING OF THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AGENCY
Following the establishment of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) in 1999, at the Federal Level, two technical Departments namely Relief and Rehabilitation and Search and Rescue were created alongside two other core service Departments viz. Finance and Administration and Planning, Research and Forecasting.

However, in line with the general practice world wide to enhance better performance and effective coordination of search and rescue activities, the Search and Rescue Department is headed by serving military personnel with the rank not lower than a colonel or its equivalent on second ment from the Armed Forces.
All States and Local Governments shall by this policy structure their various disaster management Agencies the same way and manner the Federal Government has done subject to necessary modification.

3.2. ESTABLISHMENT OF COLLABORATIVE NETWORK.
The Federal Government is aware and recognizes the fact that disaster management is multidisciplinary and that successful response of activities can only be possible through an integrated and co-ordinated approach. The disaster management responsibilities therefore involve the collaborative efforts of all the stakeholders.
The frequencies, complexity, scope and severity of destruction by the disasters have become more serious thus necessitating concerted efforts towards prevention of their occurrence and institution of appropriate remedial measures on their adverse impact on the communities. This policy initiative reflects the Government (s) commitment towards formulating a coherent strategy in addressing disaster issues in a more proactive manner with a focus on reduction of risk to communities and their vulnerabilities.

The National Emergency Management Agency (on behalf of the Federal Government) is therefore charged with the responsibility of coordinating the plans and programmes for efficient and effective response to disasters at the national level. This is indicative of the fact that the Federal Government’s concept of disaster management is based on an integrated and coordinated approach.

3.2.1. The foregoing concept necessitated the setting up of a National Council on Disaster Management (hereinafter referred to as “the Council”). The Council shall meet not less than twice a year under the Chairmanship of the Vice-President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria or his representative. Other members of the Council shall comprise the following:
i. The head of each State Government’s Disaster Management Agency or his representative and
ii. Such other stakeholders as may be determined from time to time.

3.2.2. There shall also be set up at the State level, a State Council on Disaster Management (hereinafter referred to as “the State Council”). The State Council shall meet not less than thrice a year under the Chairmanship of the Deputy Governor of the State or his representative. Other members of the State Council shall comprise the following:
i. Head of the State’s Disaster Management Agency;
ii. Head of each Local Government’s Disaster Management Agency or its representative, and
iii. Such other stakeholders as may be determined from time to time.

The establishment of the Councils shall foster periodic interaction on disaster management Issues among the members and will o a long way to ensure that the Federal, State and Local Governments and the Communities fully identify themselves with issues bordering on disaster management in the country and that they share in the responsibility to facilitate the reduction of disaster to the barest minimum.

3.3 OPERATIONAL MODALITIES
The NEMA was established to function as Federal Government’s Unit that responds to disasters that overwhelm capabilities and resources of the States and Local Governments. It shall therefore ord1n complement States and Local Governments effort.
Therefore, the modalities for intervention or involving the Federal Government by the other two tiers of Government follows:
RESPONSE PROCESS:
3.3.1. (a) When a disaster occurs and overwhelms the capability and resources of a Local Government, the Local Government. Shall call on the State Government for assistance.. The State Government shall send its team to inspect and assess the magnitude of the disaster. The report of the assessment team will indicate whether or not the disaster shall be declared by the State Government as “State Disaster”. If it is declared a State Disaster, the State shall immediately set necessary machinery in motion to provide assistance to the Local Government.

3.3.2. (b) Where the above stated disaster in any Local Government overwhelms the capabilities and resources of a State. The Government of the State shall formally call on the Federal Government through her relevant Agency I.e. NEMA will dispatch its team to inspect and assess the magnitude of the disaster. The report of the assessment team will indicate whether or not the disaster shall be declared by the Federal Government as a “National Disaster”. If it is declared a National disaster, the Federal Government shall intervene immediately for effective management of the disaster.

3.3.3. (c) When disaster occurs within a state and the disaster affects solely Federal Government’s property, or institutions in the state such institution shall make available facilities with which such form of disaster could be combated.

3.3.4. (e) When disaster occurs on a Lagoon, Ocean, rivers or inland waterways, the Navy, Air Force, Federal Road Safety Corps, Nigerian Ports Authority, National Maritime Authority, Inland Water Ways, Volunteers and trained personnel’s on management of disaster shall manage the disaster in accordance with their expected roles under the National Disaster Response Plan. These organizations under reference shall possess rescue equipment such as boats, am balances etc to combat the disaster.

4.1 VOLUNTEERS
Each tier of Government shall register reasonable number of people including Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps, Boys Scouts, Girl’s Guard, Boys’ Brigade, Cab or Bus Drivers and other interested players in disaster management as Volunteers who shall assist in combating disasters when ever they occur.
The Volunteers may also be Involved in the distribution of relief materials so as to ensure that the materials get to the victims of disaster. To this end, all tiers of Government must therefore maintain a register of Volunteers. The Volunteers shall be trained on tips relating to disaster management for not less than once in a month.

5.1 FUNDING
The Federal, Slates and Local Governments shall ensure that they fund their Disaster Management Agencies for the purpose of providing effective and efficient disaster management from:
a. Funds allocated to them from the Federation Account;
b. 20 percent of their shares from the Ecological .fund, and
c. Such money as may from time to time be granted or received from:
i. The organized private sector,
ii. The international ordonor organizations, and non Governmental organizations, and
d. Such money as may be received from the National, State or Local Governments Emergency Trust Fund.

The three tiers of Government shall ensure that funds allocated from the federation account, ecological fund and other sources are applied judiciously to the management of disaster.

5.1.1. Government at all levels hereby undertake to regularly fund their respective Agencies on Disaster Management and going by this policy the Federal, States, and Local Governments shall have statutory budget line for emergency management and shall continue to find innovative ways of sourcing funds to supplement their allocations

6.1 ENFORCEMENT
It is by this Policy agreed that any State or Local Government that neglects, fails or refuses to establish by law its disaster management Agencies or neglects, fails or refuses to manage disaster in accordance with the provisions of this Policy shall not benefit n any form whatsoever from the disaster management activities of the Federal Government through the National Emergency Management Agency.

Necessary legal action must be taken against diversion of funds or relief materials meant for management of disaster or cushioning of the effect of disaster on victims.


7.1 CONCLUSION
The Policy ensures that States, Local Governments, Communities and other Stakeholders play their expected roles in managing disasters that are within their level of competence and resources availability. The roles of the Federal, States, Local Governments, Non Government Organizations and other stakeholders in d been property spelt out in this Policy. The foregoing provision in the policy will ensure that the States, Local Governments and other stakeholders fully identify themselves with the integrated and coordinated response to disaster management.

7.1 .1. The Policy also approved the establishment of National and States Councils on Disaster Management at Federal and in each State of the Federation. The forum will coordinate participatory interactive process in promoting public awareness and commitment to disaster risk reduction, including the dissemination of scientific knowledge and information on causes and management disaster.

7 1 2 The policy covers all activities relating to disaster management in Nigeria has shown that -
a. Disaster management must have a multi-agency approach, and
b. It needs to be government led and coordinated while it must incorporate development partners and other stakeholders ranging from International and local Non Governmental organization and civil society organizations.

THE ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS IN DISASTERS AND EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

By Augustine Ebiske, Registrar, Environmental Health Officers Registration Council of Nigeria [EHORECON] At the 43rd Annual Conference/Scientific of Workshop organized by Environmental Health officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN] in 12th October, 2010, Minna

Opening:
This presentation has been adapted from WHO book “Environmental health in
emergencies and disasters” A PRACTICAL GUIDE Edited by B. Wisner, J. Adams
(2002).

INTRODUCTION:
To be able to discuss this paper better, I will start from the meaning of the key words. According to (Wikipedia 2010), a disaster is a perceived tragedy, being either a natural calamity or man-made catastrophe. It is a hazard which has come to fruition. A hazard, in turn, is a situation which poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or that may deleteriously affect society or an environment.

In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster, as is the case in uninhabited regions.

Furthermore, the word Disaster derives from Middle French word désastre and that from Old Italian word disastro, which in turn comes from the Greek word prefix 5ua-, (dus-) “bad”+ ή(aster), “star”. The root of the word disaster (“bad star” in Greek) comes from an astrological theme in which the ancients used to refer to the destruction or deconstruction of a star as a disaster.
According to (WHO 2002), Disasters are events that occur when significant numbers of people are exposed to extreme events to which they are vulnerable, with resulting injury and loss of life, often combined with damage to property and livelihoods.

Disasters, commonly leading to emergency situations, occur in diverse situations in all parts of the world, in both sparsely populated rural and densely populated urban regions, as well as in situations involving natural and man-made hazards. Disasters are often classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), their cause (natural or man-made), or their scale (major or minor). Various international and national agencies that keep track of disasters employ definitions that involve the minimum number of casualties, the monetary value of property lost, etc.

The forces that bring vulnerable people and natural hazards together are often man made (conflict, economic development, overpopulation, etc) Some of the most serious disasters and emergencies are created or further complicated by conflict and the forced movement of large numbers of people.

One way in which disasters may cause, or worsen, emergency situations is through the damage they do to environmental health facilities and services.

The common effects of various natural disasters on environmental health services.

Flooding, power failures, broken pipes and blocked roads can all disrupt water, waste and food-handling services for hours or days. More severe damage to civil
engineering structures, from bridges to water mains, can cause disruptions lasting days or weeks. In aH such cases, contingency plans for temporary repairs and, when necessary, alternative water supplies and sanitation arrangements are required.

Some key words (as defined by WHO)
Disasters are events that occur when significant numbers of people are exposed to hazards to which they are vulnerable, with resulting injury and loss of life, often combined with damage to property and livelihoods.

Emergencies are situations that arise out of disasters, in which the affected community’s ability to cope has been overwhelmed, and where rapid and effective action is required to prevent further loss of life and livelihood.

Emergency planning is a process that consists of: determining the response and recovery strategies to be implemented during and after emergencies (based on assessment of vulnerability); responsibility for the strategies; the management structure required for an emergency; the resource management requirements.

Emergency preparedness is a programme of long-term development activities whose goals are to strengthen the overall capacity and capability of a country to manage efficiently all types of emergency and to bring about an orderly transition from relief through recovery and back to sustained development.
Emergency prevention is based on vulnerability assessment and concerns the technical and organizational means of reducing the probability or consequences of disasters and the community’s vulnerability.

Environmental health management is the intentional modification of the natural and built environment in order to reduce risks to human health or to provide opportunities to improve health.

Environmental health and disasters
Environmental health hazards and threats to human health from exposure to disease causing agents are closely associated with disasters and emergencies in a variety of ways. Some disasters may involve extreme events that affect a vulnerable population directly, such that their livelihoods and lifelines that support their basic needs are disrupted for a significant period of time. However, the disruption of livelihoods may also be indirect and, even though an emergency situation may not develop, people’s vulnerability to future disasters can be increased. An explosion and lire in an industrial quarter of a city might not kill or injure anyone directly, but the employment and income of large numbers of workers and their families may be interrupted. Indirectly, then, there may be an additional threat to the satisfaction of basic needs, since the unemployed workers may not be able to afford an adequate diet, pay rent or pay for health care.

These are precisely the kinds of circumstances that can increase a family’s vulnerability to future disasters.

A broad range of activities can be designed to enable the health sector to prevent, mitigate and respond to such hazards. Disasters and development are connected in ways that necessarily involve the contributions of environmental health professionals. Through better education and higher incomes, development can improve people’s capacity to cope with environmental health hazards. On the other hand, certain types of development can create new hazards or new groups of people vulnerable to them. Disasters can set back development, but they can also provide new development opportunities. strategic planning to increase the capacity of people to withstand disaster hazards must therefore include concerns for environmental health.

Environmental health activities are interdisciplinary, involving engineering, health sciences, chemistry and biology, together with a variety of social, management arid information sciences. In limes of disaster and recovery, people from many backgrounds engage in activities designed to monitor, restore and maintain public health. Likewise, health workers find themselves cooperating with others to help with non-health-related work, such as search-and-rescue, or work that is only indirectly related to health, such as public education.

Hazards and extreme events
A hazard is any phenomenon that has the potential to cause disruption or damage to humans and their environment. Hazards are the potential for an event, not the event itself. Extreme events are natural’ or man-made processes operating at the extremes of their range of energy, productivity, etc. For example, mudslides, floods, coastal storms, locust or rat invasions are all natural, but extreme events, and to some extent the likelihood of them occurring, may be estimated. Many extreme events, such as severe floods, have been monitored and recorded over many years and have a known probability of occurrence. Man-made hazards, such as the potential for leaks of dangerous chemicals or radiation, also exist and many so-called natural hazards become events or are exacerbated by human activity. For instance, flooding in Bangladesh during the 1990s was made worse because large numbers of discarded plastic bags blocked drainage systems. Extreme events create stress in human systems and structures because the forces involved are greater than those with which the systems and structures normally cope. For instance, all houses will withstand some wind, but beyond a certain wind speed all will fail. Many farming communities are able to cope with mild and occasional drought, but are overwhelmed by severe and repeated drought. Extreme events often occur in complex “cascades”. Earthquakes may trigger mud or rock slides. Debris may dam a river, producing an artificial lake that threatens downstream settlements with flooding if the dam is breached. Forest fires can produce barren slopes more prone to erosion and flash flooding. Earthquakes may cause electrical fires or explosions of natural gas. Where urban water supplies are stored in reservoirs, earthquakes can damage them, causing flooding and reducing the quantity of water available to fight fires.

The statistical probabilities of such extreme events occurring can be estimated with different degrees of confidence. Some events, such as floods and cyclones, are clustered seasonally. The recurrence of major rainfall and floods can be calculated, but specific floods are harder to predict.

Some natural events, such as the emergence of a fatal cloud of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from the depths of Lake Nyos in Cameroon in August 1986, are unexpected and are not amenable to preparedness measures.

Disasters are events that occur when significant numbers of people are exposed to extreme events to which they are vulnerable, with resulting injury and loss of life, often combined with damage to property and livelihoods.

Disasters, commonly leading, to emergency situations, occur In diverse situations in all parts of the world, in both sparsely populated rural and densely populated urban regions, as well as in situations involving natural and man-made hazards. Disasters are often classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow), their cause (natural or man-made), or their scale (major or minor). Various international and national agencies that keep track of disasters employ definitions that involve the minimum number of casualties, the monetary value of property lost, etc. Other definitions are used by countries for legal or diplomatic purposes, e.g. in deciding when to officially declare a region a “disaster area”. The terminology used here is less precise so as to co a broad range of situations. The forces that bring vulnerable people and natural -hazards to are often man-made (conflict, economic development, overpopulation, etc.)..

An example of natural and technological hazards combining in surprising ways was seen in Egypt in 1994. Heavy rain near the town of Dronka weakened railway lines.

A train carrying fuel was derailed and leaking fuel was ignited by electrical cables, causing an explosion. Finally, burning fuel was carried by flood waters through the town, killing hundreds of people (Parker & Mitchell, 1995).

Conflict
Some of the most serious disasters and emergencies are created or further complicated by conflict and the forced movement Of large numbers of people. Conflict is a major cause of direct and indirect land degradation, leading to greater risk of environmental disasters, and also consumes resources that could be used by society to reduce vulnerability to extremes in natural and technological hazards. Conflict also imposes the greatest demands on environmental health personnel, equipment, supplies and supporting service thus calling for the most skilful use of relief resources. The secondary impact of conflict, in terms of the public health problems it creates and the disruption of environmental health services it causes, are of major importance.
Volcanic
Common levels of impact of natural disasters on environmental health services
Most common effects on environmental health

Earthquake a Cyclone b Flood c Tsunami d Volcanic eruption
e



Water supply and wastewater disposal Damage to civil engineering structures 1 1 1 3 1
Broken mains 1 2 2 1 1
Damage to water sources 1 2 2 3 1
Power outages 1 1 2 2 1
Contamination (biological or chemical) 2 1 1 1 1
Transportation failures 1 1 1 2 1
Personnel shortages 1 2 2 3 1
System overload (due to population shifts) 3 1 1 3 1

Solid waste handling Equipment, parts and supply shortages 1 1 1 2 1
Damage to civil engineering structures 1 2 2 3 1
Transportation failures 1 1 1 2 1
Equipment shortages 1 1 1 2 1
Personnel shortages 1 1 1 3 1
Water, soil, and air pollution 1 1 1 2 1


Food handling Spoilage of refrigerated foods 1 1 2 3 1
Damage of food preparation facilities 1 1 2 3 1
Transportation failures 1 1 1 2 1
Power outages 1 1 1 3 1
Flood of facilities 3 1 1 1 3
Contamination/degradation of relief supplies 2 1 1 2 1



Vector control Proliferation of vector breeding sites 1 1 1 1 3
Increase in human/vector contacts 1 1 1 2 1
Disruption of vector-born disease control programmes 1 1 1 1 1
Home sanitation Destruction or damage to structures 1 1 1 1 1
Contamination of water and food 2 2 1 2 1
Disruption of power, heating fuel, water supply or waste disposal services 1 1 1 2 1
Overcrowding 3 3 3 3 2

KEY
I - Severe i,ossihle effect.
2 - Less severe possible effect.
3 - Least Of III Possible effect.

The effects of disasters on environmental health facilities and services

One way in which disasters may cause, or worsen, emergency situations is through the damage they do to environmental health facilities and services. See summary above. -

Flooding, power failures, broken pipes and blocked roads can all disrupt water, waste and food-handling services for hours or days. More severe damage to civil engineering structures, from bridges to water mains, can cause disruptions lasting days or weeks. In all such cases, contingency plans for temporary repairs and, when necessary, alternative water supplies and sanitation arrangements are required.

Transportation difficulties and shortage of personnel may cause disruption of vector control programmes, some conditions, such as flooding, may result in the proliferation of vector breeding sites which local vector-control programmes cannot deal with. Droughts may produce a series of problems for water-supply and sewage-. Treatment systems as a result of low flow from intakes end clogging of intakes; and electricity supplies may be unreliable if power generation is affected.

Emergencies
An emergency is a situation or state characterized by a clear and marked reduction in the abilities of people to sustain their normal living conditions, with resulting damage or risks to health, life and livelihoods. Disasters commonly cause emergency situations, both directly and indirectly. Evacuation or other necessary steps taken to avoid or flee from a disaster, for example, can cause disruption of normal life on a scale calling for emergency action. Sudden, large-scale movements of people within and between countries often produce emergency conditions. Dramatic loss of livelihoods and increased spending needs due to drought or flooding may place people in a very vulnerable situation.

A cholera epidemic may overwhelm the capacity of a city’s under-resourced health service, creating an urgent need for support. In such emergency situations, local coping mechanisms are overwhelmed and so collective, specialized and often external action is required. During an emergency, it is common to see primary effects of the disaster followed by secondary effects. For instance, the primary effect of a mudslide might be that many people are injured and need urgent medical attention. A secondary effect might be that blocked sewers and broken water mains lead to an outbreak of water- and sanitation related disease some weeks later, or that the loss of livelihoods through the destruction of vegetable gardens and workshops leads to reduced food intake and a nutrition emergency some months later. Human needs for non-material things, such as security and cultural identity can also be affected, and the psychological and social impacts of a disaster may be felt many years after the event.

Emergency situations are often described in public health terms, with the crude mortality rate (CMR) being widely accepted as a global measure of their severity. A CMR which is significantly higher than the rate in the affected population before the disaster, or which is above I death per 10 000 population per day (or 3 deaths per 1000 population per month) indicates an emergency situation.

CMRs in the emergency phase following various types of disaster may be many times the background rate for the region or the affected population. Many more deaths may occur during the post-disaster emergency phase than as a direct result of the disaster itself. However, mortality rates are trailing indicators that do not indicate problems before people die as a result of them, and do not indicate the nature of the problems. Therefore, other indicators concerning health, environmental, social and economic factors are important for understanding the nature of the emergency and how it is likely to change over time, and for understanding how to react effectively.

The term complex emergencies is used to describe situations of disrupted livelihoods and threats to life produced by warfare, civil disturbance and large-scale movements of people, in which any emergency response has to be conducted in a difficult political and security environment. A combination of complex disasters and natural hazards (e.g. Military and political problems combined with severe winter weather, coastal storms and flooding, drought and a cholera epidemic) was particularly devastating in the 1990s in such countries as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq, Myanmar, Peru and Somalia.

Role of Environmental Health Officers In Disasters and Emergencies

From the presentation so far, we have seen what gets compromised in emergencies and disasters, As Environmental Health Officers our roles in these situations starts from the time before the disaster occurs.

Hazard mapping
The average frequency of occurrence and location of most extreme events can be determined with some degree of accuracy. While global maps of hazards, such as potential desertification, severe storms, and earthquake and volcanic activity, do exist a more detailed approach is of more use to environmental health and disaster planners. Historical records; physical data and computer simulations allow the production of detailed city, sub-national or national maps overlaid with zones of probable physical damage from such extreme events as landslides, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storm surges and tsunamis.
The same approach can be taken with industrial accidents. Maps of the zones surrounding hazardous factories and (he routes used to transport hazardous materials, plus data on seasonal wind velocity and direction, can be used to predict the scale of possible hazards and determine the method of evacuation or other emergency response if leaks or explosions occur. Public and private records of past industrial activity can be a valuable resource for identifying the presence of physical hazards.

The survey should be organized by geographical region and should also profile the vulnerability of different ethnic and socioeconomic groups, Disparities and priority needs in such areas as water supply, drainage, sanitation, refuse and waste disposal, housing, and food hygiene should be documented. The prevalence of vector-borne and contagious diseases by region and by socioeconomic group should also be integrated into comprehensive risk planning.

Finally, the location and safety of industrial facilities in relation to settlements should be reviewed from the point of view of air, soil and water contamination, as well as the risk of radiation, fire, explosion and accidental poisonous emissions. Such baseline surveys can reveal who is more likely to suffer from an emergency directly related to environmental health as well as where this is most likely to occur.

Warning indicators
Early warnings
An extremely important component of preparedness, prevention and mitigation is the capacity to obtain and use early warnings of impending hazards or threats. There are limitations and obstacles to the timely forecast of extreme events, however, and a number of factors can also limit the effectiveness of warnings in influencing public behaviour. Both sets of constraints must be borne in mind by environmental health managers. Warning systems vary greatly, as does the amount of forewarning that they give. Warnings must give sufficient time to enable environmental health preparedness and prevention activities to be carried out.

Stow-onset hazards
In the case of slow-onset hazards, such as drought and certain outbreaks of plant, animal and human disease, there is often a tong warning time. Meteorological services are increasingly capable of reliable forecasts of climate patterns several

Environmental health indicators, in combination with routine activities carried out by veterinarians nutritionists and epidemiologists, can be used to provide early warnings of some of these slow-onset hazards. Some African countries have systems for early warning of famine, which are linked to nutrition surveillance. In Botswana, for example, monthly returns from weighing and measuring children in well-baby clinics are automatically screened for anomalies. These data, together with crop and livestock data, are used to trigger a variety of timely drought-response measures, including supplementary feeding, public works as a form of income supplement and the exemption of affected families from paying taxes.

Hazards with moderate warning time
A number of hazards, have an intermediate range of warning times. Those responsible for environmental health should be among the first to be informed by the authority issuing the alert or provisional warning, in advance of any public announcement. An effective communication system should be established and the readiness of supplies, equipment, transport, communications and personnel should be confirmed. There may also be specific actions that managers can take to increase the level of protection of vital facilities or to prepare for possible evacuation. For instance, a volcanic eruption can usually be foreseen by a few days, if not as long as a few weeks or even months in advance, and the affected population can be evacuated in good time. Ash fall from volcanoes can contaminate and clog water- storage facilities and treatment plants and, with sufficient warning, steps can be taken to protect water supplies from this hazard.

Warning of industrial accidents
Advance warnings of large-scale accidents in industry, transportation, etc., are limited by the nature of the events concerned. For example, in Bhopal, India, there was no advance warning of the cloud of methyl cyanide that descended on the residents. In the case of the explosions in the sewer system of Mexico’s second largest city, Guadalajara, in 1992, citizens had been complaining for several days to the authorities about the smell of petrol. Frequent inspections of high-risk factories and, for example, bridges and dams can reveal structural weaknesses.

Warning of refugee movements
Civil unrest or war in one country should alert the relevant authorities of neighboring countries that an influx of refugees is possible. Several weeks’ or even months’ warning may be provided. Arrangements can then be made to receive and accommodate refugees, especially where there has been a prior history of cross- border movements and where food, medical supplies, blankets and tents or tarpaulins have been stockpiled.

After the Disaster:23
After all the planning, and finally the disaster occur, there is need for environmental health intervention and support. This will be needed in the areas of food supply, housing, drinking water, sewage disposal.

Short-term shelter in existing buildings
In many situations, people may independently seek shelter in buildings such as schools, community centres, offices, sports facilities, and even railway carriages and wagons. Such buildings are often also used for organized short-term evacuation centres The evacuation centre should be as close as possible to the neighborhood or rural community concerned but far enough from the disaster site to avoid secondary hazards. This avoids the additional stress and health dangers of a long journey, and enables survivors to have access to their former dwellings, which is psychologically important. Buildings used as short-term reception areas should be thoroughly inspected by a suitably qualified person, to ensure that they are not structurally damaged, or sited near potential secondary hazards.

Such buildings will probably have at least some running water and toilets, and some may even have kitchens. For large numbers of people, however, these will have to be supplemented. Military barracks or youth camps are usually better equipped for large numbers of people, but have the disadvantage of often being sited further away from population centres. Whatever the buildings used as temporary accommodation, it is very important that they are only used for a short period, and that they are cleaned and maintained intensively, to avoid a rapid deterioration in environmental health conditions.

• People sleeping on beds or mats should have a minimum of 3.5m2 of floor area or 10m3 of air space, In rooms with high ceilings, double bunk beds may be used.
• Beds or mats should be separated by a minimum distance of 0.75 metres.
• Adequate ventilation is required. The amount of fresh air needed is approximately 20—30m3 per person per hour. It may be necessary to provide mechanical ventilation. Whenever possible, smoking and the use of cooking fires in the shelter should be strongly discouraged.
• An ambient temperature of I 5—I 9 °C is desirable, but lower temperatures can be tolerated with warm clothing, In cold climates, buildings may need extensive repairs and modificatiohs for winter conditions, particularly in conflict situations here windows and insulation material may have been removed or destroyed.
• To avoid very high temperatures in hot climates, buildings can be modified to increase shade, ventilation and thermal capacity.
• Buildings should have emergency exits and fire escapes; the flues of stoves used for space heating should extend outside the building; overloading of electrical circuits should be avoided; lanterns and lamps should be placed or suspended so as to avoid dangers; and liquid fuels should be stored outside the building. Clear instructions on fire hazards and safety practices should be displayed in conspicuous places and drawn to the attention of residents, fire-fighting equipment should be available and properly maintained. A group of volunteers from among the survivors should be taught about the possible fire hazards and trained in the use of fire-fighting equipment.
• Access to sufficient water for drinking, cooking, and personal and domestic hygiene should be provided.
• One wash basin should be provided for every 10 people or 4—5 metres of wash bench for every 100 people; there should be separate benches for men and women, and waste receptacles at each bench. One shower head is needed for every 50 people in temperate climates and one for every 30 people in hot climates. Floors must be disinfected daily.
• Arrangements must be made for human waste disposal. Water-flushed toilets may be available in existing buildings if the water supply has not been interrupted.

Outside latrines should be located within 50 metres of the building, but at least 20 metres away from the kitchen, dining hall and water supply.
One refuse bin of capacity 50—1 00 litres should be provided for every 12—15 people. The bins should have tightly fitting lids. Special arrangements for the
collection of refuse may be needed if the normal collection service is interrupted.
Site selection and arrangement of emergency settlements

When existing buildingsare not vailable, one possibility is to use tents or makeshift shelters made of plastic sheets, tarpaulins, or local materials, such as palm thatch, in a secure location where water, sanitation and food can be provided. Emergency settlements for refugees and displaced people need to be established rapidly. However, they may be in service for months or even years, and it is usually impossible to know at the outset of an emergency how long the emergency settlement will exist. Therefore, the measures listed below are designed to provide healthy living conditions for disaster-affected people in both the short term and the long term.

The requirements that ensure that temporary camps are healthy environments are considered below
• The site should be free of major water-related hazards such as malaria, onchocerciasis (river blindness), schistosomiasis (bilharzia) and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). If these diseases are endemic, care shou!d be taken to avoid or control vector habitats and provide persona! protection against mosquitoes, black flies, tsetse flies, etc.
• The topography of the land should permit easy drainage and the site should be located above flood level. Rocky, impermeable soil should be avoided. Land covered with grass will prevent dust, but bushes and excessive vegetation can harbour insects, rodents, reptiles, etc., and should be avoided or cleared. Wherever possible, steep slopes, narrow valleys, and ravines should be avoided. Ideally, the site should have a slope of 2—4% for good drainage, and not more than 10% to avoid erosion and the need for expensive earth-moving for roads and building construction.
• Whenever possible, the area should be naturally protected from adverse weather conditions.
• Areas adjacent to commercial and industrial zones, exposed to noise, odours, air pollution and other nuisances should be avoided.
• Areas sufficiently close to blocks or rows of shelters should be identified for sanitation and waste management. The residential area of the camp should face the prevailing wind to avoid odours from latrines.
• There should be ample space for the people to be sheltered and for all the necessary public facilities such as roads, firebreaks (areas without buildings and with little or no flammable vegetation) and service areas (30m2 per person, or 45m2 per person allowing for small gardens, but not for full-scale agricultural activities). Areas for public spaces, markets, etc. should be defined from the beginning.
• Food distribution areas should be organized so as to create safe conditions for people collecting food, as well as for those distributing it.
• To facilitate the management and control of communicable diseases, camps should hold no more than 10000—12000 people or should be subdivided into independent units of no more than 1000 people.
• Drainage ditches should be dug around the tents or other shelters and along the sides of roads, especially if there is a danger of flooding. Care should be taken to lead water away from shelters, latrines, health centres, and stores. Persistent areas of stagnant water that are difficult to drain can be backfilled, or covered with polystyrene balls or a thin layer of oil, to control insects. Water points should also have adequate drainage to avoid mud.
• The site should be provided with at least two access roads for reasons of security and to reduce the risk of the site being cut off due to floods or other problems with roads.
• The surface of roads can be sprinkled with water to keep dust down. Sullage wastewater can sometimes be used to keep down dust on dirt or gravel roads. Restricting traffic and imposing speed limits can also help to reduce dust.
• Shelters should be arranged in rows or in clusters of 10—i 2 on both sides of a road at least 10 metres wide to permit easy traffic flow and access by ambulances or fire fighting vehicles. In tented areas, there should be at least 2 metres between the edge of the road and the tent pegs.
• Built-up areas should be divided by 30 metres wide firebreaks approximately every 300 metres. Firebreaks can be used for locating roads and recreation areas.
• Shelters should be spaced 8 metres apart so that people can pass freely between them without being obstructed by pegs and ropes. This spacing also helps to prevent the spread of fire, If this is riot possible owing to a lack of space, the distance between shelters should preferably be at least twice the overall height of each shelter, and should never be less than 2 metres. A separation greater than 8 metres may lead to open defecation and should be avoided.
• There should be a minimum of 3.5m2 per person inside the shelter in warm climates where cooking is done outside, and, 4.5—5.5m2 per person in cold climates where cooking is done inside the shelter.
• Shelters may be tents or prefabricated units or may be built out of plastic sheeting together with timber, stone and thatch. Where plastic sheeting is used, it is common to provide one piece, 4 metres by 6—7 metres, per household.
• Small shelters with few occupants are preferable to large shelters with many occupants.
• In cold weather, kerosene stoves or other heating appliances should be provided and people should be instructed in their use; every precaution must be taken to prevent fires and explosions.
• In the absence of electric lighting, wind-proof kerosene or oil lamps, or battery operated lanterns, should be provided for lighting shelters, toilets and roads.
• Natural ventilation should normally be adequate for temporary shelters such as tents.
• The site chosen should be within reasonable distance of an ample source of good water and, ideally, near some high ground from which water can be distributed by gravity; water sources should gradually be improved and protected once basic needs are satisfied. No one should have to walk more than 500 metres to a water point, and there should be at least one water point for every 250 people.
• Where there is no piped water, water tanks should be installed on both sides of the road.
• Refuse bins should be provided
• Latrines or other facilities for excreta disposal should be provided (at least one toilet per 20 people) and gradually improved as time and resources allow. The dangers of indiscriminate defecation should be emphasized in health education. Maintenance of toilets must be given priority in health education and camp organization.
• Bathing, laundry and disinfection facilities should be provided, and health education should emphasize the importance of frequent hand-washing. One double sided ablution bench (3 metres long) should be provided for every 50 people.
• The camp site should be cleaned regularly according to a prearranged schedule. Participation by camp residents in the cleaning of the camp should be encouraged. Young residents can be organized into teams responsible for cleaning and reporting possible health and environment problems.
• Separate accommodation is necessary for unaccompanied children, with provision for adults (welfare staff and/or community volunteers) to stay with them; there should be at least one adult per shelter or room. These children may be very disoriented and frightened, and array also have special nutritional needs. The shelters should be situated near the nutritional rehabilitation centre and field hospital, and as far from sources of secondary hazards, noise and contamination as possible.
• In conflict- and famine-related disasters, many people may be suffering from malnutrition and debilitation when they arrive, so specialized services such as intensive or therapeutic feeding may be needed. Intensive feeding or nutrition rehabilitation units should be provided with up to 15—30 litres of potable water per bed per day. Also, special care needs to be given to latrines and other waste disposal facilities used by parents, children and staff. Means for hand-washing by all staff and parents concerned with child feeding are also important.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, Environmental Health Officers have a great role to play in Disaster and Emergencies both before such situations arise and its long term management. It is for us as professionals to ensure that we stand up to the challenge faces by both disaster and Emergency situations.

References
Environmental health in emergencies and disasters” A PRACTICAL GUIDE (WHO
2002) edited by B. Wisner, J. Adams (2002).