THE CHALLENGES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS IN PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IMPLEMENTATION

By S.A. Ojewale, being an invited paper presented at the 39th National conference/scientific workshop of the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN], at the Banquet Hall, Lagos Airport Hotel, October, 2003


Abstract
Since 1977, when the World Health Assembling endorsed Primary Health Care [PHC] as the new model for building health systems, progress in establishing accessible, affordable and appropriate health care has been painfully slow.
Following this, in May 1978, an international conference was headed by WHO member states in a town in former USSR called Alma-Ata where 134 nations including Nigeria declared that PHC is the key to attaining ‘health for all in the year 2000’.
Many health professionals were involved in the policy formulation, planning & implementation of PHC in Nigeria; one of such health cadres is Environmental Health Officer [EHO]. Environmental Health Officers are always in the fore-front since the inception of PHC in Nigeria, diagnosing, sieving & coping with the challenges arising from the implementations of PHC. This paper therefore, discusses where and what these challenges are and how EHOs are coping with the challenges now and in the future.




Introduction
Primary Health Care is posing a lot of challenges to Environmental Health Officers, the challenges, which are implicit or embedded in the definition, concepts, and also in the components of PHC, are so overwhelming and inundating that it is only those Environmental Health Officers that are articulate, well abreast, scientific with adequate native intelligence that could meet and tackle the challenges, many of which have reached crisis or danger point, after all when things [challenges] are going tough only the tough can get going.

Definition of PHC
I would have preferred to define PHC as people oriented service built on the axiom of health of the people, by the people, and for the people [Bamigboye 2001] and not perceived as the exclusive prerogative of health professions as observed by Lambo [1995], but the challenges will not be so glaring as I would want them. Even then, Environmental Health Tutors Officers should have it at the back of their minds that PHC requires concerted efforts and there should not be any role or professional conflicts or wrangling among all the stakeholders.

More importantly, PHC as defined by Alma-Ata in 1978 is essential health care, based on practical, scientifically sound & socially acceptable methods and technology, made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-relevance and self-determination.

Any discerning listener will quickly realize that there is more to the issue of interpreting correctly the definition and concept of PHC than its implementation. There are underlying disagreements over how PHC problems are defined, their degree of seriousness, who is responsible for solving them, and how amenable they are to solution. These disagreements run deep, they are based on different professional training, moral principle, different values and different assumptions.
In Nigeria, every health worker including EHO talks about Primary Health Care (PHC) but if you ask them to define or explain the term, they often offer funny explanations. This shows that as important as the program,, is, it is still not well understood even by those who are expected to plain and implement the programme. We must assist each other in the process of interpretation by identifying the appropriate context, that is which the actions concerned make the most sense.

CONCEPTS OF PHC
The concepts of PHC are equally important in its implementation just as its definition is, of course, the concepts are entrenched in the definition because, it must be socially acceptable to the people, scientifically simple and at a minimal affordable cost.
One may be tempted to gloss over the issue of affordability but it is a serious and indicting challenge. For instance, since 1977, when the World Health Assembly endorsed Primary Health Care (PHC) as the new model for building health systems, progress in establishing accessible, affordable and appropriate health care has been painfully slow. While expanded coverage of preventive and curative services has saved millions of lives, many of these gains have proven to be short lived. In many cases, the benefits of investments continue for only as long as funding lasts. In the poorest countries, Nigeria inclusive, dependency on external support is increasing especially for PHC services. Thus, despite considerable efforts and enthusiasm for PHC, neither governments nor donors have been successful in fostering lasting change in local capacity to deal with health problems in the developing countries. At Local, State and Federal Government levels we have Environmental Health Officers as PHC coordinators, Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) or measurement and Evaluation Managers. The big question is how sustainable are these programmes are at local, state and federal levels?

It is reported that the Primary Health Care (PHC) agenda rested on two hidden assumptions. One was the expectation that the world economy would continue to grow as it had throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The Second presumed that the volume of external support for PHC would increase to enable the transitions of PHC in developing countries. Neither of these assumptions was ever realized because of recession and debt, the oil crisis and declining terms of trade began to cripple the economies of many countries, it has not improved to date. What is more challenging than this?

COMPONENTS OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE (PHC)
I want to further illustrate the challenges of Environmental Health Officers in Primary Health Care (PHC) implementation by making reference to ten components of PHC. In this regard, I am completely ignoring the artificial but lose boundaries created between the components earmarking them for specific health cares. The obvious reason is that the Environment i.e. the sum total of the conditions within which organisms live directly or by implication embraces all the PHC components. It is therefore logical to assert that all the ten PHC components discussed here are sources of challenges to Environmental Health Officers.

MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH (MCH)
Maternal and Child Health (MCH) aims at promoting the health of mothers of child being age and their children, so that children have the opportunity for normal growth and development and so that the reproductive life of women does not constitute too much risk to their health and well-being. The situation of MCH is Nigeria today is not encouraging, Nigerian is one of the countries where maternal and infant mortality rates are very high, the condition become exaggerated and exacerbated by poor economic conditions and non-challant attitudes of males to reproductive health.
As long as MCH remains the exclusive reserve of Nurses and Midwives, many husbands and fathers of which Environmental Health Officers are, may not see the need to encourage family planning and exclusive breast feeding (Baby Friendly Initiative). Men should co-operate with women in reproductive health.
Early marriage leading t teenage pregnancy with a; its numerous complications and pregnancy in quick successions are inimical to the health of mothers. Environmental Health Officers should see and accept this as a challenge. They should not be alienated in what MCH or reproductive health is all about. Maternal and child health syllabus could be incorporated into the West African Health Examination Board (WAHEB) Curriculum.

PROVISION OF ESSENTIAL DRUGS AND APPROPRIATE TREATMENT OF COMMON DISEASES
Here Environmental Health Officers (EHOS) are rising up to met the challenges in the areas of Onchocerciasis, Guinea-worm, Tuberculosis and Leprosy (TBL) eradication control programmes. I am aware that many EHOS are TBL managers having undergone an intensive training in Kaduna. But for the Carter Foundation, Nigerians would have known that Dracontiasis is prevalent in our midst. The versatility of EHO training and the resilience of an average EHO are the hall mark which made it possible for the cadre to be actively involved in guinea-worm, Onchocerciasis (River blindness), tuberculosis and leprosy control and eradication programmes. The challenge to wipe out these diseases is not beyond human achievement. Environmental Health Officers (EHOS) played noble and major roles in the total eradication of smallpox in the early 70s.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF LOCALLY ENDEMIC DISEASES
In Nigeria, malaria fever, Schistosomiasis, meningitis etc. constitutes endemic diseases which contribute greatly to both morbidity and mortality of children and adults. All these diseases are preventable and can be controlled.
One of the prominent challenges of EHOS is PHC implementations is the problem of malaria fever. The scourge has been with us since and in the South West Region of Nigeria, it was comment in those days to see sanitary inspectors as they were called then holding a big ladle to sample stored water for mosquito larvae and pupae. Culprits were prosecuted and penalized. But this had gone with our colonial masters.
Malaria is a global crisis, which as a household world in the sub region is taken for granted. A Roll Back Malaria (RBM) survey shows that 1/5 of the world’s population is at risk of malaria. This proportion increases yearly as a result of climate change environmental degradation, breakdown in Health care and wars.
This survey also reveals that there are 400 million cases of malaria illness each and at least one million people die annually. Most of these deaths occur in African children and he number is growing. Malaria often in combination with other diseases kills a child every 30 second. The survey further states that among pregnant women malaria is wide spread causing low weight babies and stillbirths. Nearly 60% of miscarriages are due to malaria. It is a major killer of refugees in Africa. This background is necessary as stimulant so that we will know what we are facing.
Roll Back Malaria (RBM) founded by the government of malaria affected countries, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF and the World Bank met in Nigerians in year 2000 to see how they can half the burden of malaria for the world’s people by the year 2010.
Current WHO initiatives in malaria control such as Roll Back Malaria (RBM) emphasize the use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNS) as one of the key strategies for malaria prevention and control in sub-Saharan Africa. UNICEF and WHO have set the goal of providing 32 million nets and 320 million net treatment a year for the next decade to protect 80% of African households from malaria (West African Journal of Nursing Vol. II No. 2, November, 2002).
To start with, the sudden and astronomical rise in cases of malaria is a tacit indictment on our professional competency. We need to brace up and join the other stake holders, we cannot afford to be complacent and rely on past glory old fame, it is a matter of how do we stand now, not how we stood then small pox was eradicated.
It is clear from the information provided in many health education campaigns in sub-Sahara Africa that there is still confusion surrounding effective methods of individual and community malaria control. For instance, in many areas, it is suggested that people and communities should cut the grass and bushes in their premises as means of preventing malaria. However, it has been shown that this does not reduce the incidence of Anopheles (the genus of mosquito that transmits malaria). In sub-Sahara Africa female Anopheles mosquitoes predominantly feed late at night when most people are in bed, most frequently biting between 10:00 pm ad 4.00 am. Day-feeding culex mosquitoes do not carry the malaria parasites and therefore cannot transmit the disease. As of now insecticide treated nets (ITNs) is yielding positive result if field reports are anything to go by. Right now, the net has no contraindication but there are human barriers to the use of this net. This is an aspect of the work of EHOS, to create awareness of the safety and effectiveness of ITNs.
However, ITNs should be seen as a panacea or a fool proof approach to malaria control. Environmental, physical, biological and chemical control should be intensified more than ever before. Premium should be on Environmental, physical and biological control using community based and integrated approach.



FOOD AND NUTRITION AND DENTAL HEALTH
A hungry dog is an angry dog so says a proverb: This is true because except there is abundance supply of food items and at affordable means, the gospel of Primary Health Care will be falling on deaf ears. Environmental Health Officers are not agricultural officers but they can evolve an intersectoral collaboration to ensure food surplus. However, food adulteration, contamination due to poor handling or from dirty premises is quite challenging and common. We should closely work with National Agency for Food and Drug Administration (NAFDAC) in eradicating the use of poisonous chemicals as food additives, flavours enhancers and preservatives. Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) have been too silent and complacent on the war against the use of potassium bromated commonly used by bakers. Reports indicated that potassium bromated is carcinogenic.
Since the supported taking over of anti-mortem inspection of animals by the veterinarians, EHOs are not forthcoming in inspecting meat and meat products when such are display in markets. It is common nowadays to find uninspected meat and meat products being displayed for sale in markets. The gullible and innocent members of the public are paying dearly for this because many must have been infected with one food borne disease or the other especially bovine tuberculosis.
Wholesome food cannot come out from dirty surroundings. Many food preparing and eating premises are so filthy that they server as regular sources of food contamination. Many consumers could have picked such ailments like typhoid fever, dysenteries, gastroenteritis, cholera and other bowel diseases from food serving as vehicles of infection. This is a challenge that must be faced squarely.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Environmental Health is an integral part of PHC but it is an extensive field. It includes water and basic sanitation, housing, food and nutrition, vector control, control of communicable diseases, disinfection and disinfestations, and control of pollution. Some of these components have been highlighted in this paper but I will like to emphasize water and basic sanitation, because these are areas posing challenges to EHOs in the implementation of PHC.

WATER SANITATION
To say water is everywhere and that it is abundant for use is a tantalizing statement, quite misleading and erroneous. Water is a renewable resource and some 70% of the earth's surface is water but 97% of that is ocean. By volume, only 3% of all water on earth is fresh water and most of this is largely unavailable. About three-quarters of the fresh water is locked away in the form of Ice caps and glacier located in polar areas far removed from most human habitations only about 1% easily accessible as surface freshwater. This is primarily the water found in lakes, rivers, and the soil at underground levels shallow enough to be tapped at an affordable cost. Only this amount is regularly renewed by rain and snowfall in form of hydrological cycle.

THE COMING WATER CRISIS
Fresh water is emerging as one of the most critical natural resource issues facing humanity. World population is expanding rapidly. Yet there is no more fresh water on earth now than there was 2,000 years ago, when the population was less than 3% if its current size. Water is, literally the source of life on earth. The human body is 70% water. In growing number of places people are withdrawing water from rivers, lakes and underground serves faster than they can be recharged. Population growth alone will push an estimated 17 more countries with a projected population of 2.1 million into these water short categories within the next 25 years, already 31 countries mostly in Africa and the near East are facing water stress or water scarcity (Population Report Series M, Number 14)













Malin Falkenmanrk developed the concepts of water and water scarcity based on an index of per capita fresh water need. He estimated a minimum need of 100 litre per peron for household use and from 5-20 time a much for agricultural and industrial use.
Water dispute are now a major headache in our community. The available water sources are exposed to gross pollution from animal, domestic and industrial source. What can be more challenging to EHO this time around? The proliferation of packaged drinking water a.k.a. pure water is complicating the problem. Many of this packaged water are constant source of infection. We should create awareness that water is a precious natural resource that should be judiciously used & cared for to make it wholesome.
SANITATION
Sanitation of the environment forms a strong pillar of PHC. If there is 100% immunization cover age, and there is enough food and potable water, filthy or dirty environment will negate and render useless what could have been dividends. Hence, sanitation is basic and fundamental. Sanitation is a system made up of nature, society, process and device.






When discussing sanitation, and particularly in relation to the environment, we have to consider all these components. We cannot afford to neglect any one of them. Effective and efficient environmental sanitations alone is capable of achieving between 70-75% of a healthy population that the entire components of PHC could achieve. This is because many of the PHC problems are environmental based, but this could not be achieved on platter of gold it is an arduous and Herculean challenge to all Environmental Health Officers.
Nobody including layman is satisfied with the present arrangement of refuse disposal or is it disposal or dispersal of refuse? At best, it is refuse removal than refuse disposal.
Surely there is waste crisis, because the three basic principles of waste management are not being applied. For instance, there is the need to protect Health and Environment, minimize the Burden on future generations and conservation of non-removal resources. These three principles have been derived from the philosophy of sustainable development [fig 2].







Fig. 2: Sustainable Development and the Waste Management Principles


As long as these three basic principles are ignored in waste management, problems of wastes shall linger on and remain a stubborn challenge to Environmental Health Officers.
Presently, there is no clear cut policy on the method to be adopted in disposing refuse at local, state and federal government levels. In Oyo state for instance, what is being practiced now is nothing but sanitary landfill. The people in the local government where the municipal wastes are being tipped are experiencing all sorts of environmental hazards and risks. Their land and water are polluted and large quality of farm product destroyed by methane gas. No wonder, such things like ‘not in my backyard’, ‘NIMBY’, ‘not in my term of office’, ‘NIMTOO’, ‘locally unacceptable land use’, ‘lulu’, etc., are in vogue. It is a fact that land is no more available for waste disposal.

Wastes are very democratic-they are produced by each and every one of us, and so we should all contribute to the solution. Because of the populist nature of waste, its management is very much a social problem. It is not sufficient to understand the technical aspects, it is equally important to come grip with the social and political issues, and we must seek effective solution within practical cost limitations.
Environmental Health Officers are also facing the challenge of the nylon used to pack ‘pure water’. This nylon is a non-biodegradable substance and will not accept incineration either ,because it will emit poisonous gas-dioxins . the are other polymers and polyvinyl chloride[PVC]that will emit dioxins ad furan when they are incinerated .
The growth of advertising, along with electronic media, played an important role in evolution to society current level of over consumption. The end result was a dramatic increase in the amount of variety of consumer goods and hence, garbage to compound the problem, packing became dominant force in the way good were marketed ,distributed and sold. Today packaging represent more than one third of entire waste streams [Blumbers & Gottlieb, 1989).

The sustainable development concept is generally applied to the ‘front end’ of the industrial cycle the aim of ensuring that human can feed, clothe, house and entertain themselves. It is particularly relevant in preserving our diminishing resource but sustainable development must also be applied to the ‘back end’ of the consumer cycle, the management and disposal of waste. The situation as it is remains blinds pot.
It is apposite to mention that it will not be in the interest of a clean environment and the general masses to make EHOs subservient to another cadre, it is colloquial, and a manifestation of colonial vestige.
Primary Health Care recognizes professionalism, intesectoral collaboration and concerted approach inform of consortium. The present arrangement whereby in many Local Government Medical Doctors sit down in office to oversee waste management is an aberration and a waste of human resources. They are more needed in the clinics to improve the dwindling curative services. Environment Health Officers (EHOs) can work effectively and efficiently if they are allowed to do this in a conducive atmosphere.

HEALTH EDUCATION
Most of the challenges facing E.H.Os from the implementation of Primary Health Care can be overcome through Health Education approach but Health Education itself as a component of PHC remains a challenge to Environment Health Officers.
We have not tried enough to convince the masses that health is a valued asset that should be worked for, to attain. Our attitude to the masses is that of dealing with lay unintelligent people that should be planed for not planned with. Many of enabling factors in Health Education are violated with impunity resulting to mass failure of many of the policies, programmes and projects in P.H.C.
Communications skills are very important in Health Education and to be effective, health workers need to know the facts on how to prevent ill health and treat illness. This information must be communicated to the people to improve the health of their families.
Good communication is a two-way sharing of information. It involves finding out people’s view, listening carefully to what they say and understanding their situation i.e. includes being observant and appreciating the constraint people face.
Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) should be encouraged to develop behavioural technology adequate far the solution of environmental problems inherent in the implementation of PHC. The root of the word technology is a Greek term that means art, craft, or skill-in other words, knowing how to do something.
The term behavioural technology refers to the science, art, skill or craft of influencing socially important human behaviour. There is imbalance between physical and behaviour technology resulting in many health or environmental problems.
Most behaviour relevant to primary Health Care can be thought of interm of the three components of an operant paradigm described by B.F. Skinner (1953). This model is symbolized by the term SD-R-SR. In the model, a discriminative stimulus (SD) set the occasion for a response®. One could think of an SD as a signal that particular context. The response itself will act upon the environment that the world around us sometimes changes as a function of what we do. These changes are symbolized by SR which can be either positive or (SR+) or negative (SR).
The above analysis simply confirms what Health Education explains that “every behaviour is caused”. It is therefore imperative for EHOs to see laws as a last resort especially for stubborn and recalcitrant people.

Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) should intensify environmental education more than ever before to curb environmental degradation, destruction, distraction and disruption resulting in global warming, Ozone depletion, drought, desertification, the Greenhouse effect urban heat Island, EL-NINO-effects and other natural and anthropogenic hazards and risks. They are environmental challenges that have direct being with PHC. There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributed to human activities observed the international panel on climate change (IPCC). The 2001 IPCC report says Global surface temperature have increased between 0.4 and 0.80C since the late 19th century. The pertinent question is Global warming armful to health? It is predicted that global warming will expand the incidence and distribution of any serious medical disorders. Mosquito-borne disorders are projected to become increasingly prevalent since mosquitoes proliferate faster and bite more as the air become warmer. As the whole areas heat up, then mosquitoes could expand into formerly forbidden territories bringing illness with them. There are also the effects of flood and drought both of which can result in polluted water supplies:
As I mentioned earlier, environmental degradation and destruction have direct effect on P.H.C planning and implementation. Environmental Health Officers have major role to play in the implementation of PHC, if the implementation is going to be successful.



SUMMARY
This paper has tried to explain in simple language what is Primary Health Care ( PHC), its concepts, and the components and how they are related to Environment Health Officers (EHOs). It was emphasized in the paper, that EHOs are faced with so many challenges in the implementation of PHC and that Environmental Health Officers have crucial role to play in the successful implementation of PHC.

RECOMMENDATION
In order to meet the challenges of PHC by Environmental Health Officers, I am recommending the following:
1. That Environment Health Officers should be well abreast of the PHC concept, aims and objectives and components
2. Environmental Health Officers should realize that PHC requires concerted efforts and that no professional group has the prerogative to dominate PHC
3. Role or professional conflicts should be avoided
4. The (EHOs) should pursue more academic activities than hither to.
5. Environmental Health Officers should know that they are stakeholders and partners in progress in PHC implementation
6. Environmental Health Officers should be more articulate in generating revenue either at Local, State or Federal Government Level.

CONCLUSION
Generally, the tempo of Primary Health Care (PHC) is going down and is no more gathering momentum. Health for all by the year 2000 has been elusive and remain a mirage. The vestige remains the expended programme on immunization (EPI) all other components are almost in moribund. If we cannot achieve health for all by year 2000. PHC should be rejuvenated, resuscitated and brought back to life. It will go long way to improve the health of the masses.










REFERENCE
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Akinsola, H.A. (1993). A to Z of community Health and Social Medical and Nursing practice, 3am Ibadan. Communication.

Barrow, C.J. (1995): Developing the Environmental Problems and Management, Longman Scientific Technical, U.K

Cone, J.D. (1993). Environmental Problems/Behavioral Solutions, cahfornia.

Dialogue on Diaorrhea-AHRTAC issue No 58, Sept. – Nov. 1994

West African Journal of Nusing Vol. 10 No 2, Nov. 1999.

Simpson – Herbert, M and Wood, S, (1993). Sanitation promotion-WHO

Tammnagi H., (1999). The West crises (O.V.F New York).

Perman, R & MaGilvary, J. (1996): Natural Resumes & Environmental Economical, Longman, London/New York.

Wilson, G.A & Bryant, R.L, (1997): Environmental Management: New Directions for the Twenty-first Century UCL press London.

Wisher, B & Adams J. (2002). Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters ISDR, Hongkong.

NATURAL DISASTERS AND THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS

By Ibaniba Briggs-Iti
A paper delivered during the 41st Annual National Conference/Scientific Workshop f Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN] in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, March, 2008


Health care service delivery is a major factor in the sustenance and development of any nation.
States and the international community as a whole recognize this situation and see it as a challenge to harness all necessary available machinery within their jurisdictions to meet this need.

The United Nations for instance states as one o its objectives to co-operate in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian global problems. Consequently the Economic and Social Council which is one of the organs of the organization has established well over fifteen agencies and organizations as a functional response to meeting the needs of peoples of the world. Amongst these specialist organizations are WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNFDAC, FAO, UNEP, UNDLP etc that specifically cater for the health needs of the people.

Back home in Nigeria, the Federal Ministry of Health which is the highest body responsible for provision of health services set for itself laudable objectives and about “2 1 point” responsibility which generally encompass provision o material and human resources, coordinating and supervising health programme, participating in inter-sectoral and inter-ministerial collaborations, making of health laws and policies amongst others to meet the health needs of Nigerians.
The federal government has also established several agencies and parastatals to support and complement the functions of FMOH. Some of the agencies so established are NAFDAC, NPHCDA, NHIS, NPI, SON, PAFA, NACA, NDLEA.

Private voluntary organizations, international governmental and other non governmental organizations have also emerged to join the league of organizations established to promote health. USAID, CIDA, ICRC, NRCS, PPFN, Rotary International, WCC, Rochas Okorocha’s Foundation, Kanu Nwankwo Health Foundation are examples.

Health care service delivery generally includes provision of institutional, facilities and man-power resources.

In the aspect of provision of human resources or manpower, the health sector has a chain of professionals in its service. They include Medical Practitioners, Nurses, Pharmacist, Laboratory Scientists, Environmental Health Practitioners and Community Health Practitioners etc.

Each of these professional groups has their specific roles to play in the achievement of the holistic goal of the health sector.

The Environmental Health Officer (EFIO) or practitioner is one of the oldest personnel in the health sector. His emergence dates back to the colonial era and has faced dangers in course of passing through the various stages of metamorphosis to the present day professional that he is.

The modern EHO is educated with diversities of knowledge and skills, is controversial and the envy of other sister professional groups in the sector.
The Environmental Health Officers (Registered) Act of 2000 provides for the registration and practice of persons if the profession. With the governing council created by the law of 2000 and the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria (EHlOAN) which is set to co-ordinate and regulates the activities of members, the today 13110 is set on the path of expertise and relevance.
To be able to keep with the pace, EHOAN is organizing this programme tagged “BAYELSA 2008”, which is the 4 in the series, and the purpose is to sensitize and energize members of the profession. This year’s theme is “Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects”.

It should be noted that indeed there are challenges and prospects facing the professional group. How these challenges threaten the relevance of the group and how this would be tackled should be a concern for all as well as the ability of it to appropriate the prospects that stand before all.

It is believed that at the end of this conference and workshop, fresh achievable strategies would emerge to this effect.
Six papers have at been earmarked to be delivered:
• Water Sanitation as a Key Strategy Towards Achieving the Goals of International Year of Sanitation (IYS).
• Food Sanitation and its Implications on Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria.
• Natural Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners.
• Malaria Prevention Through Environmental Sanitation: A key Strategy for the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.
• The Essentials o Effective Waste Management as A Tool For The Enhancement of International Year of Sanitation (IYS) in Nigeria.
• Implementation of National Environmental Sanitation Policy: The Journey so far.

This paper titled “National Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners will examine the role of EHOS in the management of natural disasters and objectives are as follows:
a. To explain types Natural disasters
b. To identify organizations and agencies involved in managing natural disasters.
c. To explain the composition and functions of disaster response teams.
d. To analyze the role of the EHO in management of natural disasters in Nigeria.
By way justifying the need of this paper, it is worthy to note that it is on record that millions of people die as a result of natural disaster.

Tangiwai volcanic eruption disaster for example killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in 1985, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Parkistan.

Disaster incidences have been increasing astronomically over time, in the 1980’s there were only about 100 recorded hydrological disasters per year but the number has risen to over 300 a year since 2000 (source: World Disaster Report 2006).

It is therefore expedient that the management of such situations be tackled seriously. [ the El 10 can be relevant in this business of disaster management is one of the targets of this conference.


MEANING AND TYPES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural Disaster has been defined as the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake and landslide) which moves from potential into au active phase and as a result affects human activities causing financial, structural and human losses.
Human vulnerability element is incorporated into the definition in some cases stating thereby that disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability.

Natural Hazard is a situation which has the potential to create an event that has an effect oil people. Natural hazards result from natural processes in the environment and some natural hazards are related e.g earthquakes can result in tsunamis; drought can lead directly to famines and diseases.

The National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) Act (1999) defines natural or other disasters as including any disaster ansing from crisis, epidemic, drought, flood, earthquake, storm, train, roads, aircraft, oil spillage or other accident and mass deportation or repatriation of Nigerians from any other country.

Natural hazards may be classified into the Following:
• Geological
(Ava kinche, Earthquake, Lahars, Landslide, Mudliows, Sinkholes, Volcanic eruptions).
• Hydrological
(Flood, Limnic eruption, mealstrom, seiche tsunami).
• Climate
(Blizzard, drought, hailstorm, Heat wave, hurricanes, tropical cyclones, typhoons, Ice storm, tornado).
• Fire (wild fire)
• Health and disease
• Space
(Solar flare, impact event)

Types of Natural Disasters
• Avalanche
This occurs when large snow mass slides down a mountain slide into a slope. In an avalanche, lots of’ material or mixtures of different types fall or slide rapidly under the force of gravity.
• Earthquake
This occurs as a result of sudden release of’ stored energy that radiates seismic waves. At the earth’s surface, earthquake may manifest themselves by shaking or displacement of’ the ground. Many earthquakes occur each day but are not large enough to cause to- significant damage.
 The. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake which is the second largest earthquake recorded in history claimed about 229,000 people.
 2O0 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Pakistan
• Lahar
Lahar is a type of natural disaster closely related to a volcanic eruption and involves a large amount of material including mud, rock and ash sliding down the side of the volcano at a rapid pace. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds and kill thousands of people.
 Tangiwai disaster killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in l98


• Landslides/Mud Flows
A Landslide is a disaster closely related to an avalanche but instead of occurring with snow, it occurs involving actual elements of the ground including rocks, trees, parts of houses and any thing else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by generally instability in the surrounding land.
Mudslidcs or mud flows are a special case of’ landslides in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards. This usually OCCWS after periods of heavy rain.
• Sink holes
It is a localized depression in the surface topography usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to collapse of buildings and other structures.
• Volcanic Eruption
A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power; the erupt ions comes in many forms. They range from daily small erupt R)I is which occur in places like Kilanea in Hawali or extremely infrequent super volcanic eruption.
According to Toba catastrophe theory, 70 — 75 year thousand years ago a super volcanic event in lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottle neck in human evolution.
Flood
Flooding occurs as a result of prolong rainfall including thunderstorms, rapid inciting of large amount of snow or rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream or less frequently the bursting of man — made dams or levees.
 The Huange Ho River Flood in China in 1931 caused between 800,000 and 4,000,000 deaths.
 Yangtze River floods in China in 1978 rendered 14 million people covered much of the country for three weeks resulting in thousands of death leaving the country devastated for years afterwards.
 Tropical/storm Allison in Houston Texas in 2001 was devastating
 Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in 2005 left most of the city under water.
Limnic Eruption
It is also referred to as a “Lake overturn”. A limnic eruption is a rare type of natural disaster in which CO2 suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, live stock and human such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising CO2 displaces waters. Scientist believes landslides, volcanic activity or explosions can trigger such an eruption.
 1984 limnic eruption in Lake Monou in Cameroon causing the death of 37 nearby resident
Tsunami
It is a wave of water caused by the displacement of a body of water. The world is Japanese meaning harbor and wave. Tsunami can be caused by undersea earthquakes.
Blizzard
It is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperature strong winds and heavy blowing snow.
Drought
It is an abnormally dry period when there is not enough water to support agriculture, Urban or environment. Water needs. Extended drought can result in deaths by starvation or diseases and can result in wildfires
 Between 1900-1941 China experienced several cases of droughts killing millions of people.
 Since 2006, Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Queens land have been under drought conditions for five to ten years.
Hailstorm
A Hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thousandstornm produces numerous hailstorms which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorm can be especially devastating to farm fields, running crops and damaging equipment.
• Hailstorm in Munich Germany on August 31, 1986 fell thousands of trees causing millions of dollars in insurance claims
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and Typhoon
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon. A cyclonic storm system forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off the ocean and becomes a storm. The carioles effect causes the storm to spin and a hurricane is declared when the spinning mass of storms attains a wind greater than 74 mph.
Hurricane is used for these phenomenon in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the India, Typhoon in the Western pacific.
• 1970 Bhola cyclone is recorded as the deadliest hurricane
• 2005 Hurricane Katrina which devasted the Gulf Coast of the U.S.
Tornado
A Tornado is a natural disaster resulting from thunderstorm. Tornados are violet rotating colomns of air which can blow at speeds between 50 and 300 mph and possibility higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along sequel lines or other large areas of thunderstorm development. Waster spouts are tornadoes occurring over tropical waters in high rain conditions.
Wild fire
It is an uncontrolled fire burning in wild land areas. Common causes include lightening and drought but wild fires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat to those in rural areas and also wild life.
Epidemics
An outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads at a rapid rate through human population.
A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There have been many epidemics throughout history.
• The 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic killings an estimated 50 million people worldwide
• The 1957-1958 Asian flu pandemic which killed an estimated one million people.
• The 1968-1968 Hong Kong Flu pandemic
• The 2002-2003 SARS pandemic
• The AID epidemic beginning in 1959
• Others are Malaria, Ebola bemorrhage fever, Cholera, Menningitis, Yellow Fever etc.
Impact Event
It is a natural disaster in which an extraterrestrial piece of rock or other material collides with the earth. The exact consequences of a direct earth impact would vary greatly with size of the colliding object, although in cases of medium to large impacts short term climate charge and a general failure of agriculture.
Famine
A social and economic crises that commonly accompanied by wide spread malnutrition starvation, epidemic disease and increase mortality although some famine occur by natural factors, it can and often is a result of economic or military policy that deprives people of food that they require to survive Famines often hit areas like sub-Sahara African and Asia.
Common natural disasters in Nigeria are flooding, erosion and drought. Although natural disasters are situations caused by natural factors some underlying factors have been identified by some experts as being responsible especially in the hydrological disasters. For instance unplanned urbanization in flood prone region increase the likelihood that their towns and villages will be affected by flash floods and coastal floods.
Large areas covered with cement prevents runoff water to get absorbed by the soil thereby causing floods.

ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Disaster management is a global issue. States and non governmental agencies efforts towards this direction are laudable. Programmes and activities have been earmarked to ensure disaster relief and reduce the consequential risks. Some of the organizations and bodies involved in management of natural disaster may be stated as follows
National Level
In Nigeria apart from the direct efforts of the Ministries of Health and Environment, there are established several other bodies which engage in disaster management. Some of them include:
National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)
This is the foremost agency saddled with the responsibility of managing emergencies. The agency has a governing council made up of the following:
• The Vice President (Who is the chairman)
• The secretary to Government of the Federation
• Representatives from the Federal Ministries of Aviation, Foreign Affairs, Health, Internal Affairs, Transport, Water Resources, Works and Housing
• One representative each of the armed forces, the Nigerian Police, the Nigerian Red Cross societies, such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time.
The functions of the agency are as follows:
• To formulate policy on all activities relating to disaster management in Nigeria and coordinate the plans and programme for efficient and effective response to disasters at national level.
• Co-ordinate and promote research activities relating to disaster management at the national level
• Monitor the state of preparedness of the organizations or agencies which may contribute to disaster management in Nigeria.
• Collate data from relevant agencies so as to enhance forecasting, planning and field operation of disaster management.
• Educate and inform the public on disaster prevention and control measures.
• Coordinate and facilitate the provision of necessary resources for search and rescue and other types of disaster curtailment activities in response to disasters distress calls.
• Coordinate the activities of all voluntary organizations engaged in emergency relief operation in any part of the federation.
• Receive financial and technical aid from international and nongovernmental management in Nigeria.
• Collect emergency relief supply from local and foreign sources and from international and non governmental agencies
• Liaise with state emergency management committees established under section and monitor where necessary the distribution of relief materials to disaster victims.
• Process relief assistance to such countries as may be determined from time to time.
• Liaise with the UN Disaster Reduction organization or such other international bodies for the reduction of natural and other disaster
• Prepare the annual budget for disaster management in Nigeria
• Perform such other functions which in the opinion of the agency are its objectives in the act.
The Nigerian Red Cross Society (NRSC)
NRCS is a non governmental organization directly linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
It is an independent humanitarian relief and development organization whose mission is to prevent and alleviate human suffering and is guided in its work by the seven fundamental principles of the movement tagged “The Vienna Proclamation of 1965”. The principles include; Humanity, Impartiality, Neutrality, Independence, Voluntary Service, United and Universally.
Activities of NRCS include:
• Recruitment and training of personnel for rendering of first aid, disaster relief and home nursing.
• Dissemination of information on the ICRC activities and international humanitarian law to target groups such as Red Cross volunteers, the military, the police, teachers and media.
• Family training activities
• Planning and implementing disaster preparedness and response
• Render community services in the areas of
 Health education
 Blood donation
 Primary Health care services
 First aid training and services
 Vacation programme
 Environment project such as construction of latrine.
INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
International agencies involved in natural disaster management include:
a. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
This organization is made up of the following:
 The international committee of the Red Cross
 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies
 National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies totaling about 160.
The functions of ICRC include
 Assist victims of disasters by providing medical care, setting up hospitals and rehabilitation centre.
 Provide appropriate aids as needed such as food, shelter, and clothing
 Run central tracing agency
 Promote assistance to war disabled
 Initiate and promote international humanitarian law ‘
 Carryout studies and research on humanitarian work
 Reunite families split by war
 Visit military prisoners and other detainees
 Arbitrate between warring parties in armed conflict
 Prohibit in human or degrading treatment e.g. hostage taking, torture, summary executions, deportations etc
 Active in conflict resolution, armed and non armed conflict and internal disturbances and tension.
b. Medicines Sans Frontier (MSF)
 Provides health and to victims of wars and natural disasters
c. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
 Fights poverty and diseases and advocates for environmental protection.
d. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHCR)
e. World Bank.
f. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP).
g. World Health Organization (WHO).
WHO is active in emergency and humanitarian actions.
Others include:
 USAID
 Medicine Sans Frontier (MSF) (provides health aid victims of war and natural disasters. Provides aids in chronic emergencies)
 World Food Programme (WFP)
 UNICEF
 CARE USA
 Catholic Relief Services (CRS)
 Food and agriculture organization (FAO) etc.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM.
Composition
A comprehensive emergency response team may be composed of the following:
a. Health Team
 Medical doctors
 Nurse
 Drug dispenser
 Health Educator
 Nutritionist
 Medical records officer
 Environmental Health Officer etc.
b. Environmental management team
 Environmental Health officer
 Civil and other Engineers.
c. Social welfare team
d. Information team
e. Fires control/service team
f. Representative of organizations
g. Security team (Civil Defence Corps/Police).
Functions of Emergency Management team
Functions of emergency response team may be summarized thus.
 Assessment of disaster zone and cases
 Evacuation of victims to temporary settlement
 Render Health services to the needy
 Provision of relief materials such as food, water, clothing drugs to victims
 Provision of Environmental and general sanitation
 Refer serious health cases to hospitals
 Provision of security and safety of victims
 Publicities/report emergency situations
 Seek financial aids for victims.
ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
It is difficult to stand before professionals like you and give instructions on what should be done during emergencies. However a reminder of what is normally done is an easier task to accomplish.
It is therefore intended in this part of the paper to highlight what is already known by all, and this will be done with a persuasive note to all the endeavour to take actions in order to maintain the image brushing ad relevance that the professional group requires at this time.
The role of the Environmental Health Officer in disaster management is to carry out environment process, most particularly to note are:
• The Evacuation stage
• The settlement stage
• The Treatment stage
• The clean up stage
• The provision of supplies stage.
In each of these stage, the EHO is expected to:
• Make observations/carryout inspections
• Detect nuisances
• Abate the nuisances
• Prevent the reoccurrence of nuisances.
The specific environmental health actions to be taken by the EHO are as follows:
• Inspect and determine the suitability of means of transportation.
• Ensure that means are not overcrowded or pose health hazards
• Ensure sanitary waste disposal for victims in transit
• Give health education to victims.
Settlement Stage
• Carryout site/facility inspection before arrival of victims
• Ensure provision of waste disposal facilities
• Ensure adequate waster/electricity supply
• Ensure provision for storage and preservation of food
• Give health education to victims
• Carryout disinfections and disinfestations.
Treatment stage
• Ensure that hospital/medical wastes are sanitarily disposed off
• Carryout disinfection of materials.
Clean up stage
• Zone area for proper cleaning
• Determine appropriate cleanup methods
• Supervise clean up exercise
• Ensure sanitary disposal of waste generated
• Coordinate personnel to be used for the exercise
• Ensure that dead bodies are appropriately disposed.

Provision of Supplies Stage
• Ensure safety of supplies
• Ensure storage and preservation of supplies
• Ensure fair distribution of supplies.
The EHO is expected to play his role in the management of disasters and his ability to take quick and relevant actions in what makes the difference.

CONCLUSION
Quick response to emergency situations save life and reduce mobility rates of victims. It is important therefore that the EHO understands the emergency situation and identify areas that pertain to him and take appropriate actions. In this way he becomes relevance and contributes his best whenever and wherever the call comes.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL AND RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY

By: Rotimi M. A

An invited paper presented at the 39th National Conference/Scientific Workshop of the Environmental Health Officer Assoociation of Nigeria [EHOAN], October, 2003

INTRODUCTION
The principal aim of all sound development is the promotion of human welfare and happiness. It is extremely difficult to set down objective welfare or human happiness, especially the latter. Happiness is essentially a state of mind, but it is generally associated with a feeling of contentment and the knowledge that one’s aspirations are either being fulfilled or stand a reasonable chance of being fulfilled.
No programme of development can be regarded as complete unless it includes at least certain basic human needs whose satisfaction can be regarded as an essential condition for human existence. The achievement of these needs/objectives demands the application of human effort and intelligence. Just as man is the ultimate beneficiary of all development efforts, so also is he the originator of all development programme and goals. Thus, unless man is healthy in mind and body, the development process cannot even begin. Nor can the fruits of development be fully utilized and enjoyed unless those whom they are intended to benefit are in a fit state of health to make use of the resulting benefits and assist in extending them to the rest of the society.
Health and development thus have mutual beneficial effects on each other; but quite plainly health comes first in order of priority. Good health implies not just the absence of illness, but a positive state of well-being in which body and mind are fit and all the faculties are working harmoniously at their maximum level of efficiency. A healthy person needs to be assured of all basic physical requirements of life – good job and safe work place, good food in adequate quantities, reasonable standards of shelter and clothing, adequate and safe water supply, facilities for wastes management and means of social existence. To a large extent the provision of these basic needs turns on the availability of adequate financial intellectual and technological skills for directing these resources along productive and useful channels.
In Nigerian Society of today which is astronomically industrializing and diversifying its economy profound changes are taking place in the environment as is now evident. Some of these changes have beneficial effect on health, safety and socio-economic well-being of our people, whilst some other aspects have demonstrable adverse effects on health.

ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT
It has now become clear beyond any doubt that the task of bringing about a new socio-economic order at the national level is very daunting. And added to this is the Herculean task of achieving, in collaboration with the rest of the international community, and particularly the other Third World regions, fundamental structural changes in national economic relations.
Economic development implies growth and change in a sustained manner. It is closely bound to environmental concerns. Man cannot hope to improve his world without economic growth. But quality of life cannot advance unless the working and living environment is nurtured and valuable resources are protected.
Man uses the natural resources which abound in his environment in a variety of ways to meet his needs. This often results in environmental deterioration; a problem aggravated by rapid population growth and urbanization – resulting in uncontrolled urban growth and expansion of environmentally marginal settlements; and industrialization, with attendant environmental pollution; and deterioration o the rural resource base through deforestation, soil erosion and degradation.
The question that arises is how to establish a harmonious and realistic relationship between man and nature which is a long-standing and largely unresolved one. Following years of mindless onslaught on and depletion, degradation and in some cases complete destruction of environmental resources, leading to real fears as to how long man can hope to survive on this planet without health and safety being endangered, efforts are being made to discover the right approach to man-nature interaction.
In order to ensure that possible negative impacts of development projects are predicted and addressed prior to project take-off and are environmentally sound and sustainable, an Environmental Impact Assessment programme was adopted in December, 1992.
The goals of the EIA include:
- Responsible use and exploitation of natural resources
- Sustainable productivity of ecosystems
- Maintenance of the carrying capacity and the absorptive capacity of air, land and water
- Prevention of the degradation of environmental quality
- Use of appropriate technology
Like most other developing countries, Nigeria had for a long time embraced the concept of rapid industrial growth as the vehicle for overall economic development. Since the 1960s, the various National Development plans have consistently emphasized industrialization as the means of achieving rapid increase in the nation’s productive capacity as well as improving the standards of living of the citizenry. As a result of this pursuit, and with the advent of the oil industry in particular, environmental degradation has been on the increase.
Rapid population growth at a rate of 3.4% per annum is straining the urban environment. The United Nations Development Programme in its 1986 Annual Report has it that one quarter of the world’s people call misery home;
- That nearly 100 millions are actually without shelter, eating and sleeping along public streets in all major metropolitan centres.
- That squatter settlements abound lacking water, sewage facilities, removal of solid waste etc.
These problems are taking a toll on the Nation’s Economy!

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
Industrialization is an important life-wire in the economic development of any nation and an important barometer for measuring the nation’s stature in the international community. It provides ready employment opportunities for a good percentage of the population. It facilitates the upliftment of standards of living and social well-being.
Industrialization therefore begets development which is a very desirable end.
There are over three thousand industries in Nigeria today. The operation of these industries varies according to their technological process, size, nature and products, characteristics of the waste produced and the receiving environment of discharged waste. Presently, these industries have been classified into the following ten sectoral groups by the Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN), via:
a. Food, Beverages and Tobacco
b. Chemical and Pharmaceuticals
c. Domestic and Industrial Plastic and Rubber
d. Basic Metal, Iron and Steel, and Fabricated Metal Products
e. Pulp, Paper and paper Products, Printing and Publishing
f. Electrical and Electronics
g. Textile, Wearing Apparel and Leather
h. Wood and Wood Products including furniture
i. Non-Metallic Mineral Products
j. Motor Vehicle and Miscellaneous Assembly
Every industrial activity involves the input of raw materials through some mechanical process and the usual result is the finished desired economic good and some unwanted by products or wastes. The wastes come in various forms of solid, liquid or gas.
Inevitable as industrialization is, the siting of industries and the process technology employed in them are sometimes determined by various criteria, some o which are environmentally inappropriate. For example, industrial estates are sometimes established alongside residential areas and large urban centres.
Again, the process technology of some industries often result in unacceptable levels of toxic and dangerous industrial wastes, effluents and emissions.
The most common problems associated with industrial facilities are: air and water pollution, the creation of solid wastes, noise and modification of traditional land use.
Assessment of industrial projects should therefore consider:
- Identifying potentially harmful effects of a particular project on the environment, health and society
- Ensuring that appropriate mitigating measures are incorporated into the project, and
- Preventing unnecessary depletion of domestic natural resources.
Lagos State is Nigeria’s most industrialized state. Reportedly, it accounts for over 60% of the federation’s total industrial investment. According to the Nigerian Industrial Directory, 1994 edition, published by the manufacturers’ Association of Nigeria and the report prepared for and submitted to the Lagos State Ministry of Environment and physical planning by the World Environment System (an Industrial Data Base, 1997) over 2000 industries have been identified in Lagos State.
Two things would immediately strike one concerning the large quantities of industries in Lagos State. The first is that economic activities, employment opportunities etc is high. The second is that pollution from industrial discharge/waste is high as well.
Indeed, pollution has bothered conservationists for decades. It is now of sufficient intensity to concern the public. Economists have turned their attention to the causes, cost, and possible cures for pollution. On the other hand, however, economists are also concerned about economic growth and environmentalists often assert that economic growth is accompanied by pollution of the air, contamination of water supplies, and destruction of wildlife habitats.
To complicate the issue, energy, which is essential to life and to the preservation of the standard of living we most desire, has become increasingly expensive. Unfortunately, to increase the energy supplies we must often aggravate the pollution problem. And when industrial wastes are ill-managed, ther are potential dangers viz:
i. Water Pollution:-
Industrial waste from such industries as breweries, textiles, bottling, pulp and paper, pharmaceutics, meat-packing, dairies, paint, metal finishing, and so on, contain carbonaceous and nitrogenous substances, organic/inorganic matter, toxic chemicals, heavy metals. If such harmful or potentially harmful industrial wastes are dumped in surface dumpsites, or in gulleys, valleys or drainage basins, leachates from them (i.e. liquids from dissolved solid wastes) percolate freely and are swept by rain flood into surface water (such as streams lakes, rivers) and into burst water pipes and nearby underground water system. The result is extensive chemical pollution of water. An example is River Kaduna which plays a very important role as the major sources of water supply and common sink of all water-borne wastes produced by the industries.
This is also true of the stream serving as waste sink to NICHEMTEX in Ikorodu in Lagos Sate. Most other industries along Aromire area (Ikeja), Ijora, Apapa, discharge their effluents and untreated directly into open public drains.
ii. Air Pollution:-
The quality of air is affected by smoke, dust, automobile exhausts and gaseous waste from factories. The important gaseous emulsions from Nigerian Industries are sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen particulate matter, heavy metal dust etc. These gaseous irritate the lungs and pose a serious threat to the health, particularly of older people and children.

Quantitative data are not readily available on air pollution because it is rarely monitored by Government agencies and the industries do not want to monitor it. The two biggest sources of air pollution are vehicular emissions and industrial plants. The population of vehicles in Lagos State is about 500,000 while industries number over 2000.

Air pollution is also a phenomenon of ill-managed waste. Technically, air is said to be polluted when its natural capacity to dilute various atmospheric pollutants is over-burdened. The air gets easily polluted when chemically – laden industrial effort and toxic gaseous emission or dissolving industrial waste solids are released into it.

iii. Land Pollution:-
Land includes all the natural resources used in the production of the things we want i.e. the minerals in the ground, forests, waterfalls, fertile soil etc. Disposal of solid and hazardous waste on land is dangerous when not dealt with in an environmentally sound way. The danger is that these wastes may pollute ground water used or drinking and soils used for grazing and farming. Cost of land is made higher. Unwanted health and environmental impacts such as contamination of soil and possibly of food products grown thereon are potential consequences of improper disposal of hazardous wastes.

Other includes:- Land degradation which sets in motion a chain of events that lead to declining food production and increase children’s malnutrition.
- Creation of an aesthetic blight that harms the natural beauty, historical sites and tourism.
All the above environmental hazards-to human health, animal life, plant life, and the economy show that proper waste management and control is intimately connected with the on-going global concern for sustainable development.
RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
Nigeria’s Population is estimated at 126 million persons by World Health Organization (WHO) and has been increasing annually at 3.4 percent. At this rate the population is set to reach 281 million persons in 2015 and 338 million by the year 2025. As is typical in countries where fertility has been high for a long period of time, (between 4 and 7 children per woman). Nigeria has a very young population. Population projections indicate that in 1985 over 47 percent of the population is under the age of 15. Consequently, Nigeria has a high child dependency ratio which is the proportion of children under 15 to adults in the economically productive ages, is to 64.

Nigeria is experiencing rapid urban growth. In 1960, only two urban centre- Lagos and Ibadan-had more than 500,000 residents; by 1980, 9 cities had more than 1/2million persons. Between 1960 and 1970, the urban population grew by 4.7 percent per year, and between 197o and 1982, the population of the cities grew by 4.9 percent per year. 1980, about 20 percent of the population of Nigeria lived in the urban centres. Rapid urbanization has contributed to poor housing conditions, inadequate water supply, and waste disposal, congestion, high rates of unemployment and underdevelopment, crime and other social problems.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS
Every family and individual has a basic right to a decent home and a suitable =living environment. However, large segments of the population in urban and rural areas do not enjoy one or both of these fundamental needs. The realization of a decent home in a suitable living environment requires clean air, pure (good) water and food, adequate shelter and unpolluted land. Also required are freedom from excessive noise and odours, adequate recreation facilities, and convenient services in an environment that provides safety, comfort, and privacy.

Housing is expensive and difficult to find in many urban areas of Nigeria, particularly the capital. Construction has not kept pace with the rapidly expanding population, leading to severe overcrowing. In Lagos, the master plan assumes the following projections of an average of 6.3 persons per household! And with high fertility rate, about 1.6 million new housing units would have been required between 1985 and 2000 simply to accommodate the growth of the population. Another 1.9 million units would be needed between 2000 and 2015 for a total of 3.5 million new units over the 1985-2015 period.
Practically, all urban and rural areas contain substandard, slum and blighted areas. With the movement of large numbers of people to cities, urban areas became congested, desirable housing became unobtainable. Inadequate facilities for transporting people rapidly and cheaply to and from work made it necessary for many people to accept less desirable housing in the cities, close to their work. The inability of the ordinary wage earner to economically afford satisfactory housing left him with choice but to accept what housing was available. Some landlords took advantage of the situation by breaking up large apartments into smaller dwelling units and by constructing cheap housing-of course with the attendant problem of none provision of sanitary offices and wastes management facilities.

In recent years, about 25 percent of households requiring new housing in Lagos have been able to obtain housing through private markets, while the other 75 percent are low income households unable to obtain adequate housing with their own resources.

Slums therefore abound! This may start with the expansion or spill-over of business into the contiguous residential areas, thereby making the housing less desirable. Poor people next door or in the same building, desiring quit and privacy, move. Owners are hesitant to continue maintenance work, causing buildings to deteriorate. The landlord is even ready to convert the building or a segment of it to commercial use. There is therefore a progressive degradation from blight to slum. And as blight spreads so does crime, delinquency, fires and housing decay.

There are also the areas that are slums from the start. The absence or failure to enforce building, sanitary and health regulations leads to the development of “shanty towns” or poor housing areas. Added to this, are cheap, new and converted dwellings and tenements that are poorly located, designed and constructed-just to provide shelter.

In recent years the population growth has been taking place outside the major cities, but the rate of housing construction and rehabilitation has not kept pace with the needs of population growth. The loss of housing due to decay, and demolition further compound the problem.

A notorious feature of our major cities and towns over the years has been haphazard development. Many of the popular towns and districts were unplanned. The direct results of the unplanned developments is that there are no infrastructural services in most of them, and such as exist are grossly inadequate.

In Lagos State, in the past decade, the Government has created a number of Agencies to tackle, among other things, the problems of unplanned development. The New Towns Development Authority has, as part of its functions, control and monitoring of unauthorized developments within Government Estates.

The task force on Environmental Sanitation and special offences assists in removing illegal structures and building without approved plans. The Committee on illegal conversions of residential buildings to other uses is a new creation in the State. It was established in 1994. And in 1996 came the Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency (LASEPA) both having relevance to the problem of unplanned developments.

HOUSING, HEALTH AND SAFETY
Substandard housing trends contribute to the aggravation of health and safety problems; viz:
a. Over crowing and congestion of living yards
b. Inadequate water supply
c. Inadequate or absence of sewage disposal facilities
d. Inadequate waste disposal facilities
e. Poor drainage facilities resulting in pollution of domestic water sources, flooding and dampness of living quarters ‘
f. Poor ventilation and lighting
g. Clustering of living quarters with junk, tins and cans
h. Atmospheric pollution
i. Lack of privacy and recreational facilities
j. Lack of access-ways into the settlement
k. Excessive noise from a variety of sources
l. Transmission of diseases and frequency of physical injuries
m. Unhygienic food handling and storage
n. Harbourage of vectors and hosts of disease
o. Conversion of the home as a workplace with increased health risks from chemicals or accidents
p. Higher morbidity and morbidity rates and the lower life expectancy.

The realization that millions of people lived a life consistent with human dignity, that many people were deprived of basic human requirements such as shelter, water supply, sanitation, employment, health services, education and recreation and the rates of urbanization are increasing while conditions in human settlements are deteriorating a an alarming rate must lead to the decision that national/state/local governments and private organizations must be act to improve the living conditions of the people.

In this connection, the following steps are pertinent:
a. A though study of the housing development situation in the major urban and rural settlements of this country, aimed at an understanding of the nature and magnitude of the housing and settlement problems encountered by the people
b. Enactment/Enforcement of appropriate legislation that will lead to the progressive and incremental realization of the housing rights of the citizens
c. Formulating and adopting a national housing policy that will lead to provision of housing for all with facilities for waste management
d. Provision of such facilities to protect preserve, promote that physical and mental health and social well-being of the people; to prevent and control the incidence of communicable diseases; to reduce environmental hazards to health and to maintain adequate sanitation and public health, to protect the safety of the people and to promote the general welfare.
e. Without tearing down existing buildings, gradual improvements be made, involving as much as possible the participation of the residents in slum areas.

The urgency of coming to grips with the successes and failures in residential development project as it affects health and safety has been heightened by the severe economic and financial strains now affecting many countries. Resources available for development have become scarce. Yet investing to make residential developments more sanitarily efficient and healthy places is a key factor not only in the fate of the urban poor, but in national economic recovery and growth.

The need at this juncture to evaluate the experience of the past decade and identify ways of improving the effectiveness of future residential developments, with particular attention to waste management.
HEALTH AND SAFETY IMPLICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
The common threat running through this paper is that Nigeria can afford sustained industrial and residential development to the extent that it manages wastes in productive and domestic activities. Waste management can reduce physical constraints which hamper economic expansion-in the human environment as well as in the supply of energy, and other critical or scarce resources.

The quality of life depends on human security, safety, comfort and other factors relating to health, pleasure and happiness.

The implications of waste on health and safety include
Waste Creates/increases costs
- Organizing and operating costs
(time, supplies, equipments, power, capital costs)
- Costs borne by the people
Waste Cause Changes
- In physical, social or emotional functioning
- In resource use (inequities in allocation of resources)
- In the quality of life of people e.g. deafness, impairment of hearing
Waste Cause serious public health problems
- Supports the growth of large population of flies (which can transmit typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery etc)
- Encourages the proliferation of rats
- Promotes the prolific breeding of roaches and mosquitoes
- Gives rise to noxious and offensive oddurs
- Gives rise to smog and air pollution
- Causes flooding when dumped on water ways
- Obstructs free flow of traffic when dumped on motorways.
Waste Cause health impairment/death
- Through land degradation which sets in motion a chain of events that lead to declining food production and increase children’s malnutrition. In some parts of the country, some 20%-40% of children under age five are reported to be below 75% of the standard weight for their age
- Through pollution of water bodies from discharge of domestic sewage and industrial waste
- Through air pollution linked with incidence or respiratory and pulmonary diseases
- Destruction of wildlife.
Waste Assaults the senses/diminishes value
- Creation of an aesthetic blight
- Strong objectionable odour
- From slum/blighted housing.
Waste Tends to increase
- Risk of road accidents
- Risk of community health from certain industrial processes e.g. fire explosion, poisoning etc
- Impact on existing health and safety services
- Environmental hazards and deterioration of natural resources
- Exposure to local diseases e.g. malaria.

RECOMMENDATION
Protect the resource base, through:
- Land use planning
- Preventing the discharge of pollutants and sustain development through environmental impact assessment
- Establishment of environmental education that enculturizes hygiene practices
- Beautification of the environmental through tree planning and protection of the greenbelt areas of the country.
Control aggravation of existing hazards by:
- Introducing polluter-pay-principle i.e. an economic disincentive package for environmental restoration on pollution abatement
- Enforcement of environmental legislation programmes which defines the responsibilities of the users of the environment
- Establishment and strengthening of an Environmental Services Department at the Local Government level
- Establishment of institutional framework for environmental lay reporting and data collection, analysis and utilization
- Gradual improvement to slum/blighted areas.

CONCLUSION
For effective management of the environment, contamination of the air, water and land resources must be kept low enough to avoid deleterious effects on human health and welfare.

Future generations will inherit this country after us and will pay for our mistakes and carelessness. We should therefore not fold our aims as if nothing is happening. Every effort must be made to made to counter the deterioration in the quality of life that will occur if the environmental resource base continues to be debased.

Thank you and God bless.
 
REFERENCES
1. Federal Ministry of Heal (F.M.H) and National Population Bureau 1985. The Effects of Population Factors on Social and Economic Development.
2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 1985. The environment/Public Health and Human Ecology
3. United Nations Development Programme (U.N.D.P) 1986. A better Environment for Developing Annual Report.
4. Philip Hardwide et al 1988. An Introduction to Modern Economics
5. World Health Organization (WHO) – Urbanization and its implications for Child Health 1988.
6. Federal Environmental Protection Agency (F.E.P.A)– The Environmental and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 1990.
7. Sanford D. Gordon et al – Introductory Economics 1990.
8. Rotimi Braimoh – Industrial Pollution and Prevention: Implications on Health 1991.
9. Rotimi Braimoh – Environmnetal Pollution: Effects on Community Health 1991.
10. M.A. Ajomo et al – Environmental Law and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 1994.
11. Prof. Adeniyi Osuntogun – Waste Management for Sustainable Development (A Keynote address) 1994.
12. Lagos State Government – Lagos State Environmental Action Plan (LSG) 1997
13. Shelter Rights Initiative – Practical issue in Human Settlements and Health 1997
14. Shelter Rights Initiative – Improving the Living Environment in Slum Settlements 1999

NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a fact of life that at one time or another a community or nation will be faced with an adversity, a calamity, a catastrophe, a disaster or emergency, natural or man-made. Realizing disaster as a fact of life and the need to prepare for its eventuality led the Federal Government to formulate a National Policy on Disaster Management, which is meant to cater for required responsibilities of the Federal, States and Local Governments respectively when disasters occur.

Government at all levels, NGOS and Civil Society Organizations, the private sector, International Development Partners and United Nations Agencies have pursued a wide range of strategies and programmes to prevent and respond to disaster situations. However, these initiatives have been undertaken in a less consistent and harmonious manner and remained reactive and uncoordinated outside a coherent Policy framework.

1.2 OBJECTIVES AND IMPERATIVES OF THE POLICY
In order to guarantee the adherence to the provisions of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the Federal Government initiates, formulates and Implements policies and programmes of activities to make the Nigerian environment peaceful, orderly and conducive for all its citizens. The policies of government are also targeted at preventing, reducing or managing disasters in all their ramifications whenever they occur.

The primary goal of the government in formulating the National Policy is to integrate disaster management in the national development process in order to facilitate quick and coordinated response to such situations as may be required so as to save as many lives as possible when disasters occur bearing in mind that increased safety will promote the use and enjoyment of our environment and economic development.

The policy aims at establishing and strengthening of disaster management institutions, partnerships, networking and main streaming disaster risk reduction in the development process so as to strengthen the resilience of vulnerable groups to cope with potential disasters.

The policy has also highlighted coordination of disaster risk reduction initiatives within a unified policy framework in a proactive manner at all levels of Government.

The wide spread of disaster prone areas in a country as large as Nigeria requires that policy on disaster management should not only vary drastically from one area to another with respect to the same type of disaster and that overlapping jurisdictions do not introduce unusual ambiguities and complexities in the interpretation and execution of policies.

It is also necessary to have a well thought out and coherent programme of disaster management. In this policy, the different roles of each tier of government and other stakeholders are articulated. A policy of this nature shall provide clear rules for predictable behaviour of the unambiguous regulations for the management of disaster and a clearly prescribed pattern of such disaster management with the roles of the different actors clearly defined.

Prior to the formulation of this policy, disaster management at each tier of government had been individualistic. This policy is therefore necessary In order to herald an integrated approach to disaster management. Disasters should be analyzed not in isolation but as extreme situations that are implied on the everyday conditions of the population. They must be placed in the context of the development of the entire social systems in which they occur. ln order to determine its threshold of tolerance and achieve the control of the environment, a country requires a disaster management policy which will cater for:
i. National development planning and disaster management;
ii. Disaster prevention,
iii. Disaster mitigation;
iv. Disaster preparedness;
v. Disaster response; and
vi. Disaster recovery/rehabilitation.

Disaster management is therefore a collective responsibility Of the Federal, State, Local Governments and other stakeholders. Community based organizations and non-governmental organizations should be courted, encouraged and supported to render assistance. The Federal Government’s concern about the non existence of disaster management structure in some States and Local Governments. in the Federation, which has continuously made local problem to assume such a proportion as to become a matter of concern to the Federal Government further contributed to the reasons for putting up this policy.

1.3 MEANING OF DISASTER
Nigeria like any other country is exposed to a wide range of social hazard which could be natural or man made in which the lives of the citizens as well as infrastructures may be endangered or adversely affected. Such hazards could lead to great or sudden misfortune causing severe widespread disruption to normal patterns of life, injury, hardship and adverse effect on health. Furthermore, the event affects the social structure such as destruction or damage to Governance, Legal systems, buildings, communications and essential services. Disaster therefore means a serious disruption of the functioning of the society, causing widespread human, material or environmental losses, which exceed the capability of the affected society to cope with using only its own resources.

1.4 DISASTERMANAGEMENT
Disaster management may be defined as those measures which are aimed at impeding the occurrence of a disaster event and for preventing such an occurrence from having harmful effects on communities. Disaster management encompasses a body of policies, regulations and operational activities which exist for dealing with disasters. These include classical management functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. It also involves many organizations which must work together to prevent, prepare for, respond to and promote recovery from the effects of disaster. This implies that there must be institutions or organizations and procedure at the various levels of government to cater for the pre impact and post impact levels of disasters. All the Organizations involved in the management of disaster need to be well coordinated in large country like Nigeria. This made the Federal Government to establish the National Emergency Management Agency as a coordinating agency.

It is clear from these explanations that disaster management is so inclusive that no one individual, group or organization or level of government can be responsible for the entire range of disaster management activities.
1.5 TYPES OF DISASTER IN NIGERIA
The main types of disaster which disaster management organizations may be called upon to manage include:
i. Floods;
ii. Destructive storms;
iii. Drought;
iv. Desertification;
v. Catastrophic gully and coastal erosion
vi. Disease epidemic;
vii. Civil strife;
viii. Fire disasters;
ix. Building collapse;
x. Explosions;
xi. Aviation disasters;
xii. Road accidents;
xiii. Maritime and inland waterways disasters; and
xiv. Earth tremor/land slide.

1.6 COMPONENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The management of the aforementioned disasters entails six interrelated groups of activities. The activities are:
i. National development planning and disaster management;
ii. Disaster prevention;
iii. Disaster mitigation;
iv. Disaster preparedness;
v. Disaster response, and
vi. Disaster recovery.

These six functions which together make up disaster management shall be effectively performed by various levels of government.

1.6.1. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The Federal, States and Local Governments shall be disaster- conscious in their development planning and activities and shall therefore put in place various counter disaster measures and programmes. These measures and programmes shall be designed to ensure that development promotes disasters reduction, does not create new disaster threats and does not worsen existing disaster threats.

These measures and programmes include:
i. Dam construction, to reduce river flooding;
ii. Urban master plans, to reduce urban flooding;
iii. Implementation of the Env1ronme impact Assessment Act, to ensure that development projects do not create new or increase existing disaster threats;
iv. Medical and health plans, to counter threats of disease epidemics, and
v. Promoting ethno-religious harmony amongst its people through conflict transformation, resolution and management.

The problem with these measures is that they are often not faithfully implemented or applied. This applies, in particular, to urban master plans and emergency regulations, which partly explains why we continue to have urban flood disasters and communal clashes in various parts of the country. The three (3) tiers of Government are expected to apply the aforementioned measures meticulously.

1.6.2. DISASTER PREVENTION
Disaster prevention measures are designed to impede the occurrence of a disaster event or to prevent such a disaster event from having a devastating impact on people, infrastructures and the economy. All the natural disasters which occur in Nigeria, with the exception of destructive storms, drought and earth tremors, can be prevented to a greater or lesser degree. For example, disaster preventive measures against flood disasters include:

i. Aforestation, to slow down runoff and promote infiltration of rain water into the soil and to reduce the occurrence and magnitude of floods;
ii. Better land use planning and development control that keep people off areas which are liable to floods;
iii. Dam construction, to even out stream flow;
iv. The construction of drainage canals in low-lying areas to take away storm waters quickly;
v. Stream channelization; and
vi. The provision and maintenance of drainage ditches or gutters in urban areas.

There is the need therefore for the Federal, States, Local Governments and other disaster managers to get the civil populace and agencies concerned joke drainage canals, channelized streams and drainage ditches free of solid waste, which often renders them ineffective.

1.6.2.1. There shall also be put in place measures to prevent:
i. Disease epidemic, e.g. adherence to sanitation laws and regulations;
ii. Civil strife leading to displacement of persons, e.g. constitution of security committees at Federal, State and Local Government Levels and better intelligence gathering system of the Nigeria Police Force and other security agencies;
iii. Fire disasters, i.e. adherence to fire codes;
iv. Building collapse, i.e. adherence to building codes;
v. Aviation disasters, i.e. adherence to civil aviation safety regulations
vi. Road accidents, i.e. adherence to the Highway code;
vii. Maritime and inland waterways disasters, i.e. adherence to safety regulations.
viii. Explosions, i.e. adherence to laws and regulations guiding the handling, use, storage, and transportation of explosives, e.t.c.

Thus, whenever any of these types of disaster occurs, the chances are that someone or some people have flouted existing laws, regulations, codes and procedures and or somebody or some people have failed to enforce these laws, regulations, codes and procedures. The three tiers of government shall therefore ensure compliance with all laws and regulations that are designed to prevent, mitigate and control disasters.

1.6.3. DISASTER MITIGATION
Disaster mitigation measures are specifically designed to reduce or minimize the impact of disasters whenever they occur in Nigeria. The measures are often, but not always, in the form of laws and regulations.
They include:
i. Building codes;
ii. Development control measures;
iii. Safety regulations relating to high rise building and the handling of explosives and other hazardous substances;
iv. Safety codes for land, water and air transportation;
v. Irrigation projects to counter drought and
vi. The establishment of shelterbelts to mitigate the effects of drought and desertification.

The existing regulations which are meant for disaster mitigation are usually not being strictly enforced. The result is that when disasters occur, people, infrastructure and the economy feel their full impact. The three tiers of Government ought to ensure the enforcement of relevant laws and regulations.

1.6.4. DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
Disaster preparedness are activities and measures undertaken in advance to make it easier for all levels of communities and individuals to respond quickly and effectively to disaster events. These measures include among others:
i. The three (3) tiers of Governments shall ensure that First Aid training forms part of the curriculum at all educational levels.
ii. Disaster management contingency plans;
iii. Disaster relief stockpiling such as building materials, blankets, buckets, food items etc;
iv. Early Warning Systems;- This means an organized structure for prediction and disserninations of timely and effective information to allow individuals who may be at risk to take action to avoid or reduce, their risk and prepare for effective response.
v. Emergency communication systems;
vi. Public education and awareness; and
vii. Training programmes for disaster responders;

1.6.4.1. The Federal Government through the Nation
Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) has drawn up a National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP) which has been approved by the Federal Executive Council. The National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP):
i. States the disaster response and recovery actions and responsibilities of the Federal Government and its agencies;
ii. Describes the Federal Government’s response and recovery resources available to support States, Local Governments and communities to save lives, protect public health and safety, protect property and aid victims in their reconstruction efforts after a disaster;
iii. Describes disaster management facilities available in some non-governmental organizations which may be called upon for assistance in times of emergency
iv. Describes the standard operating procedures or disaster response functions of relevant Federal Government Agencies and some non-government organizations;
v. Assigns disaster response functions to vanous government agencies like:- Armed Forces, Nigerian Red Cross Society, Nigeria Police Force, Nigerian Ports Authority, geria Security and Civil Defence Corps, Fire Services, National Airspace Management Agency, n government organizations and companies with relevant capacities as specified in National Disaster Response Plan; and
vi. Provides a coordinating framework hr disaster response with NEMA as its hub.

1.6.4.2. The NDRP is a very important document with which all disaster responders In Nigeria should be familiar with. There is therefore the need for N EMA to continue to aggressively:
i. Mount campaigns to make all stakeholders aware of their responsibilities under the NDRF and enlist their cooperation;
ii. Sensitize and encourage stakeholders to build their disaster response plan and capabilities, and
iii. Put the NDRP to the test in simulation exercises.

The States and Local Governments shall adopt the provisions of the NDRP mutatis mutandis.

Federal, States, and Local Governments shall also maintain a stockpile of disaster relief materials to enable the relevant tier of government respond reasonably and quickly to a disaster. The stockpile shall include but not limited to food items, household utensils, clothing materials, beddings and building materials. The three (3) tiers of Government shall cultivate a policy of maintaining their own stockpiles of resources with which to meet emergencies or have a budget line that will enable them to obtain these resources at short notice.

1.6.5. DISASTER RESPONSE
Disaster response are measures to be taken during or immediately after a disaster impact to save lives, care for the victims, protect properties and effect emergency repairs to infrastructures. These Include:
i. Search and rescue;
ii. Survey and assessment of disaster impact and needs created;
iii. Evacuation of victims; and
iv. Mass care.

1.6.5.1. Despite the existence of many disaster response outfits in Nigeria, both governmental and non-governmental agencies, a number of things were lacking that made response to certain disasters as well as civil’ strife incidents that have occurred in various parts of the country, not as timely and effective as they should have been. These inadequacies include lack of effective coordination, inadequate training, lack of equipment, lack of relief materials and absence of adequate early warning systems. It is hereby proposed by this policy that
i. There shall be effective coordination of the efforts of the numerous disaster responders;
ii. Adequate training of people for search and rescue and relief operations;
iii. There shall be adequate First Aid training for the Nigeria Police Force, Fire Service, Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps, the Armed forces, Federal Road Safety Corps and all other paramilitary structures for effective emergency response,
iv. Equipment such as helicopters, fire tenders with capacity to fight fires in high rise buildings, etc.;
v. Regular simulation of rescue procedures e.g. fire drills etc.;
vi. Availability of relief materials; and
vii. Adequate Early Warning System mechanisms.

1.6.6. DISASTER RECOVER
Recovering from a disaster is the process by which a disaster stricken area returns to its pre disaster state: The three tiers of Government shall rapidly ensure:
i. The restoration of properties, essential services and infrastructure damaged by the disaster; and
ii. Rehabilitation of stricken people or displaced persons so that their trauma Is put behind them and they settle down to their pie-disaster lives and livelihoods.



THE RESPONSIBILITIES FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

2.1 ROLE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
The Federal Government through the National Emergency
Management Agency shall by this policy perform the following disaster management functions:
a. Formulate policy on all activities relating to disaster management In Nigeria and co-ordinate the plans and programmes for efficient and effective response to disasters at national level;
b. Co-ordinate and promote research activities relating to disaster management at the national level;
c. Monitor the state of preparedness of all organizations or agencies which may contribute to disaster management In Nigeria;
d. Collate data from relevant agencies so as to enhance forecasting, planning and field operations of disaster management;
e. Educate and inform the public on disaster prevention and control measures;
f. Co-ordinate and facilitate the provision of necessary resources for search and rescue and other types of disaster curtailment activities in response to distress call;
g. Co-ordinate and support the activities of non-governmental organizations engaged in disaster management in any part of the Federation;
h. Receive financial and technical aid from international organizations and non-governmental agencies for the purpose of disaster management in Nigeria;
i. Collect emergency relief materials or supplies from local, foreign sources and from international and non-governmental agencies;
j. Distribute emergency relief materials to victims of natural or other disasters including internally displaced persons and assist in the rehabilitation of the victims where necessary;
k. Liaise with State or Local Government Emergency Management Agencies to assess and monitor where necessary the distribution of relief materials to disaster victims,
l. Process relief assistance to such countries as may be determined from time to time;
m. Liaise with alt relevant foreign or International agencies like the United Nations Institutions or such other international bodies for the reduction of natural and other disasters; and
n. Perform such other functions which in the opinion of the NEMA are required for the purpose of achieving the objectives of this policy.

The enabling Act of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) has put in place modalities for its establishment, membership of its Governing Council and other incidental or ancillary matters.

2.2 THEROLEOFTHESTATEGOVERNMENTS
All States in the Federation shall ensure that they put in place legislation setting up a body to be known as State Emergency Management Agency (SEMA). The legislation which shall include provisions that will ensure that Local Governments in the State setup agencies with similar functions shall have among other things the following provisions:
a. Establishment in the state a body to be known as the State Emergency Management Agency (SE MA),
b. The State Agency
• Shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession; and
• May sue and be sued in its corporate name.

There shall also be established for the management of the State Agency, a governing council, hereinafter referred to as “the Council The Council shall consist of
a. The Deputy Governor of the State, who shall be the Chairman,
b. The Secretary to the State Government,
c. ONE representative each from:
• The State Ministry of Women and Social Welfare,
• The State Ministry of Health,
• The State Ministry of Works,
• The State Ministry of Water Resources,
• The state fire service,
• The Federal Airport Authority of Nigerian the State,
• The State Environmental Protection Agency,
• The National Emergency Management Agency
• The Disaster Reaction Unit within the State/geo political zone
• The Nigeria Police Force,
• The Federal Road Safety Corps,
• The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps
• The Nigerian Red Cross Society,
• The National Maritime Authority in coastal States,
• Such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time by the State Government, and
• The head of the State Agency as member/Secretary.
(c). The State functions of the Agency shall include the following:
a. Respond to any disaster within the State and may seek assistance from the National Emergency Management Agency when damage and need assessment are considered beyond the state’s capacity of response,
b. Collect and collate data on disaster in their respective states, and
c. Carry out disaster management activities in the State.



2.3. THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
All Local Government represents the third (3) tier of Government in the Country. This tier shall equally put in place a legislation setting up a body to be known as the Local Government Emergency Management Agency similar to the one at the State Level and in line with the State’s Law on it.
The Local Governments in the Federation shall put in place a legislation setting up an Agency for disaster management. The enabling Bye-Law shall have among other things the following provisions: -
Establishment of a body to be known as the Local Government Emergency Man (LEMA).
The Local Government Agency
(a) Shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession; and
(b) May sue and be sued in its corporate name.

There shall also be established for the management of the Local
Government Agency, a governing Council hereinafter referred to as “the Council”.
The Council shall consist of
a. The Chairman of the Local Government, who shall be the Chairman,
b. The Secretary to the Local Government,
c. The Councilor of Works
d. The councilor of health,
e. The Chairman of Local Governments Traditional Council,
f. The head of information Unit of the Local Government,
g. The head of Social Welfare Unit of the Local Government
h. The Divisional Police Officer
i. One representative each from:
i. The State Emergency Management Agency,
ii. The Disaster Reaction Units within the Local Government Area,
iii. The Federal Road Safety Corps.,
iv. The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps.,
v. The Nigerian Red Cross Society,
vi. Such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time; and
j. The head of the Local Government Emergency Management Agency as Member! Secretary.
The Local Government’s Agency shall:
a. Respond to any disaster within the Local Government and may seek assistance from the State Emergency Management Agency if it deems fit in each circumstance,
b. Collect and collate data on disaster In their respective Local Governments; and
c. Carry out disaster management activities in the Local Government as may, from time to time be recommended by the Agency.


3.1 STRUCTURING OF THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AGENCY
Following the establishment of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) in 1999, at the Federal Level, two technical Departments namely Relief and Rehabilitation and Search and Rescue were created alongside two other core service Departments viz. Finance and Administration and Planning, Research and Forecasting.

However, in line with the general practice world wide to enhance better performance and effective coordination of search and rescue activities, the Search and Rescue Department is headed by serving military personnel with the rank not lower than a colonel or its equivalent on second ment from the Armed Forces.
All States and Local Governments shall by this policy structure their various disaster management Agencies the same way and manner the Federal Government has done subject to necessary modification.

3.2. ESTABLISHMENT OF COLLABORATIVE NETWORK.
The Federal Government is aware and recognizes the fact that disaster management is multidisciplinary and that successful response of activities can only be possible through an integrated and co-ordinated approach. The disaster management responsibilities therefore involve the collaborative efforts of all the stakeholders.
The frequencies, complexity, scope and severity of destruction by the disasters have become more serious thus necessitating concerted efforts towards prevention of their occurrence and institution of appropriate remedial measures on their adverse impact on the communities. This policy initiative reflects the Government (s) commitment towards formulating a coherent strategy in addressing disaster issues in a more proactive manner with a focus on reduction of risk to communities and their vulnerabilities.

The National Emergency Management Agency (on behalf of the Federal Government) is therefore charged with the responsibility of coordinating the plans and programmes for efficient and effective response to disasters at the national level. This is indicative of the fact that the Federal Government’s concept of disaster management is based on an integrated and coordinated approach.

3.2.1. The foregoing concept necessitated the setting up of a National Council on Disaster Management (hereinafter referred to as “the Council”). The Council shall meet not less than twice a year under the Chairmanship of the Vice-President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria or his representative. Other members of the Council shall comprise the following:
i. The head of each State Government’s Disaster Management Agency or his representative and
ii. Such other stakeholders as may be determined from time to time.

3.2.2. There shall also be set up at the State level, a State Council on Disaster Management (hereinafter referred to as “the State Council”). The State Council shall meet not less than thrice a year under the Chairmanship of the Deputy Governor of the State or his representative. Other members of the State Council shall comprise the following:
i. Head of the State’s Disaster Management Agency;
ii. Head of each Local Government’s Disaster Management Agency or its representative, and
iii. Such other stakeholders as may be determined from time to time.

The establishment of the Councils shall foster periodic interaction on disaster management Issues among the members and will o a long way to ensure that the Federal, State and Local Governments and the Communities fully identify themselves with issues bordering on disaster management in the country and that they share in the responsibility to facilitate the reduction of disaster to the barest minimum.

3.3 OPERATIONAL MODALITIES
The NEMA was established to function as Federal Government’s Unit that responds to disasters that overwhelm capabilities and resources of the States and Local Governments. It shall therefore ord1n complement States and Local Governments effort.
Therefore, the modalities for intervention or involving the Federal Government by the other two tiers of Government follows:
RESPONSE PROCESS:
3.3.1. (a) When a disaster occurs and overwhelms the capability and resources of a Local Government, the Local Government. Shall call on the State Government for assistance.. The State Government shall send its team to inspect and assess the magnitude of the disaster. The report of the assessment team will indicate whether or not the disaster shall be declared by the State Government as “State Disaster”. If it is declared a State Disaster, the State shall immediately set necessary machinery in motion to provide assistance to the Local Government.

3.3.2. (b) Where the above stated disaster in any Local Government overwhelms the capabilities and resources of a State. The Government of the State shall formally call on the Federal Government through her relevant Agency I.e. NEMA will dispatch its team to inspect and assess the magnitude of the disaster. The report of the assessment team will indicate whether or not the disaster shall be declared by the Federal Government as a “National Disaster”. If it is declared a National disaster, the Federal Government shall intervene immediately for effective management of the disaster.

3.3.3. (c) When disaster occurs within a state and the disaster affects solely Federal Government’s property, or institutions in the state such institution shall make available facilities with which such form of disaster could be combated.

3.3.4. (e) When disaster occurs on a Lagoon, Ocean, rivers or inland waterways, the Navy, Air Force, Federal Road Safety Corps, Nigerian Ports Authority, National Maritime Authority, Inland Water Ways, Volunteers and trained personnel’s on management of disaster shall manage the disaster in accordance with their expected roles under the National Disaster Response Plan. These organizations under reference shall possess rescue equipment such as boats, am balances etc to combat the disaster.

4.1 VOLUNTEERS
Each tier of Government shall register reasonable number of people including Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps, Boys Scouts, Girl’s Guard, Boys’ Brigade, Cab or Bus Drivers and other interested players in disaster management as Volunteers who shall assist in combating disasters when ever they occur.
The Volunteers may also be Involved in the distribution of relief materials so as to ensure that the materials get to the victims of disaster. To this end, all tiers of Government must therefore maintain a register of Volunteers. The Volunteers shall be trained on tips relating to disaster management for not less than once in a month.

5.1 FUNDING
The Federal, Slates and Local Governments shall ensure that they fund their Disaster Management Agencies for the purpose of providing effective and efficient disaster management from:
a. Funds allocated to them from the Federation Account;
b. 20 percent of their shares from the Ecological .fund, and
c. Such money as may from time to time be granted or received from:
i. The organized private sector,
ii. The international ordonor organizations, and non Governmental organizations, and
d. Such money as may be received from the National, State or Local Governments Emergency Trust Fund.

The three tiers of Government shall ensure that funds allocated from the federation account, ecological fund and other sources are applied judiciously to the management of disaster.

5.1.1. Government at all levels hereby undertake to regularly fund their respective Agencies on Disaster Management and going by this policy the Federal, States, and Local Governments shall have statutory budget line for emergency management and shall continue to find innovative ways of sourcing funds to supplement their allocations

6.1 ENFORCEMENT
It is by this Policy agreed that any State or Local Government that neglects, fails or refuses to establish by law its disaster management Agencies or neglects, fails or refuses to manage disaster in accordance with the provisions of this Policy shall not benefit n any form whatsoever from the disaster management activities of the Federal Government through the National Emergency Management Agency.

Necessary legal action must be taken against diversion of funds or relief materials meant for management of disaster or cushioning of the effect of disaster on victims.


7.1 CONCLUSION
The Policy ensures that States, Local Governments, Communities and other Stakeholders play their expected roles in managing disasters that are within their level of competence and resources availability. The roles of the Federal, States, Local Governments, Non Government Organizations and other stakeholders in d been property spelt out in this Policy. The foregoing provision in the policy will ensure that the States, Local Governments and other stakeholders fully identify themselves with the integrated and coordinated response to disaster management.

7.1 .1. The Policy also approved the establishment of National and States Councils on Disaster Management at Federal and in each State of the Federation. The forum will coordinate participatory interactive process in promoting public awareness and commitment to disaster risk reduction, including the dissemination of scientific knowledge and information on causes and management disaster.

7 1 2 The policy covers all activities relating to disaster management in Nigeria has shown that -
a. Disaster management must have a multi-agency approach, and
b. It needs to be government led and coordinated while it must incorporate development partners and other stakeholders ranging from International and local Non Governmental organization and civil society organizations.