DERATTISATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF PEST & VECTOR CONTROL

BY SANITARIAN OMO’BA ’FEMI DAINI

A PAPER PRESENTED AT THEMATIC TRAINING ON PEST MANAGEMENT CONTROL HELD AT FILBON HOTEL, UPPER CHIME AVENUE ENUGU ON 6TH SEPTEMBER, 2012.

Introduction:-
The term “pest” refers broadly to any organism that is troublesome, noxious or destructive. Pest includes a variety of birds species, mites, ticks, nematodes, ants, swaps, bees locust, termites, plant and animal pathogens and parasite, nuisance wild animals (e.g. venomous snakes and Elephants) Rats and Mice, snails, cattle, weeds etc.
For the purpose of this lecture our concentration will be on the Pest widely known as Rat because of it strategic significance in pest and vector control and the Public Health importance.

RATS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS:-
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. “True rats” are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and brown rat, Rattus norvegicus. Many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats.

Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size; rats are generally large muroid rodents, while mice are generally small muroid rodents. The muroid family is very large and complex, and the common terms rat and mouse are not taxonomically specific. Generally, when someone discovers a large muroid, its common name includes the term rat. While if it is small, the name includes the term mouse. Scientifically the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse.

The best-known rat species are the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). The group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats, and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, but seldom weigh over 500 grams (1.1 lb) in the wild.

The term “rat” is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. Examples include the North American pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, and others. Rats such as the bandicoot pat (Bandicota bengalensis) are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus Rattus. Male rats are called bucks unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, and infants are called kittens or pups. A group of rats is either referred to as a pack or a mischief.


The common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans; therefore, they are known as commensals. They may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. However, the widely distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. Many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to habitat loss or competition with the brown, black or Polynesian rat.

RAT HABITAT-
Rats are either terrestrial or arboreal in nature, although rats preferring one habitat are capable of inhabiting others. The Norway rat and roof rat are the two most common North American rat species. They are terrestrial and arboreal, respectively.
Norway rats are most commonly burrowers. They build their nests outside the walls of homes or in various clumps of vegetation. Norway rats may also construct their homes beneath the edges of sidewalks or patios.
As is implied by their name, roof rats prefer arboreal habitats. They live in yucca, palm and cypress trees, as well as in elevated areas of human homes. Roof rats can be found living in attics, rafters, eaves and on roofs. They may also choose to nest in non-arboreal vegetation, such as shrubs, honeysuckle and tall grasses.

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE OF RATS:-
Wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira, Toxoplasma gondii, and Campylobacter. The Black Death is traditionally believed to have been caused by the micro-organism Yersinia pestis, carried by the tropical rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) which preyed on black rats living in European cities during the epidemic outbreaks of the Middle Ages; these rats were used as transpdort hosts. Other zoonotic diseases linked to pest rodents include classical swine fever and foot-and-mouth disease.
The multimammate rats transmits Lassa fever, a fatal disease that has caused several epidemic episodes in some parts of the country.
The average lifespan of any give rat depends on which species is being discussed, but many only live about a year due to predation.

Specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. Pet rats are typically variants of the species brown rat, but black rats and giant pouched rats are also known to be kept. Pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have been kept as pets. Pet rats do not pose any more of a health risk than pets such as cats or dogs. Tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviours.

Subjects for scientific research
A laboratory rat strain, known as a Zucker rat, is bred to be genetically prone to diabetes, the same metabolic disorder found among humans.
In 1895, Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts (United State) established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies. Over the years rates have been used in many experimental studies, which have added to our understanding of genetics, diseases, the effects of drugs, and other topics that have provided a great benefit for the health and well-being of humankind. Laboratory rats have also proved valuable in psychological studies of learning and other mental processes (Barnett, 2002), as well as to understand group behavior and overcrowding (with the work of John B. Calhoun on behavioral sink). A 2007 study found rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only documented in humans and some primates.

Domestic rats differ from wild rats in many ways. They are calmer and less likely to bite; they can tolerate greater crowding; they breed earlier and produce more offspring; and their brains, livers, kidneys, adrenal glands, and hearts are smaller (Barnett 2002).

Brown rats are often used as model organisms for scientific research. Since the publication of the rate genome sequence, and other advances, such as the creation of a rat SNP chip and the production of knockout rats, the laboratory rat has become a useful genetic tool, although not as popular as mice. When it comes to conducting tests related to intelligence, learning, and drug abuse, rats are a popular choice due to their high intelligence, ingenuity, aggressiveness and adaptability. Their psychology, in many ways, seems to be similar to humans. Entirely new breeds or “lines” of brown rats, such as the Wistar rat, have been bred for use in laboratories. Much of the genome of Rattus norvegicus has been sequence.

DERATTISATION:-
Derattisation is one of the various methods of disinfestations. Derattisation can simply be described as every controlled measures taken or adopted in the elimination extermination or control of rats in an environment where they are not wanted or desired. There are various methods involved in derattisation and the use or adoption of any is based on:
(i) Purpose (ii) Types of rat (iii) level of infestation (iv) Habitat.

METHODS OF RAT CONTROL:-
(a) Chemical Control: - This involves the use of Chemicals known as Rodenticides (Rat Poison) in exterminating rats. Rodenticides can either be “single feed baits or Anti coagulants” they are poison that have been developed specifically to kill rats and mice. They consist of first generation poisons such as Brodifacoum, Bromadiolome and Difenacoum.
Rodenticides are a category of pest control chemicals intended to kill rodents.
Single feed baits are chemicals sufficiently dangerous that the first dose is sufficient to kill.

The use of rodenticide baits for the control of rats is the only method by which most amateurs can be reasonably certain of eliminating a colony quickly and completely. With rats around, you should put aside any negative feelings you might have about using poisons for the sake of achieving swift and complete control. (The only exception to this advice is where rats are living inside your home, when a poisoned rat dying under the floor in the wall can produce a vile smell) In this case break back traps should be used as a first method of control.
Rodents are difficult to kill with poisons because their feeding habits reflect their place as scavengers. They will eat a small bit of something and wait, and if they don’t get sick, they continue. An effective rodenticide must be tasteless and odorless in lethal concentrations, and have a delayed effect.

Anticoagulants are defined as chronic (death occurs after one to two weeks after ingestion of the lethal dose, rarely sooner), single-dose (second generation) or multiple-dose (first generation) rodenticides, acting by effective blocking of the vitamin K cycle, resulting in inability to produce essential blood-clothing factors – mainly coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII (reconverting).
In addition to this specific metabolic disruption, massive toxic doses of 4-hydroxycoumarin and indandione anticoagulants cause damage to tiny blood vessels (capillaries), increasing their permeability, causing diffuse internal bleeding (haemorrhagia). These effects are gradual, developing over several days, but claims that they are painless are unfounded: in humans both warfarin poisoning and hemophilia commonly cause moderate to severe pain from bleeding into muscles and joints. In the final phase of the intoxication, the exhausted rodent collapses in hypovolemic circulatory shock or severe anemia and dies calmly. However, because of the duration of discomfort and pain before death it has been suggested that the use of rodenticides can be considered as inhumane.

The main benefit of anticoagulants over other poisons is that the time taken for the poison to induce death means that the rats do not associate the damage with their feeding habits.
• First generation rodenticidal anticoagulants generally have shorter elimination half-lives, require higher concentrations (usually between 0.005% and 0.1%) and consecutive intake over days in order to accumulate the lethal dose, and less toxic than second generation agents.

• Second generation agents are far more toxic than first generation. They are generally applied in lower concentrations in baits – usually on the order of 0.001% to 0.005% - are lethal after a single ingestion of bait and are also effective against strains of rodents that became resistant to first generation anticoagulants; thus, the second generation anticoagulants are sometimes referred to as “superwarfains”.

Class Examples
* First generation: warfarin, coumatetraly Coumarings/4- Hydroxycoumar * Second generation: difenacoum, brodufacouM flocoumafen and bronmadiolone diphacinone, chlorophacinone, pindone

1,3-indandiones These are harder to group by generation. According to some sources, the indandiones are considered second generation. However, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, examples of first generation agents include chlorophacinone and diphacinone.

Other Difethialone is considered a second generation anticoagulant rodenticide.

Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1-3 days after bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually zinc phosphide) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large infestation by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amount of zinc phosphide feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents, that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2-4 days). These methods of alternating rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the ara, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e. rodents feed on it readily).

Zinc phosphide is typically added to redent bait in a concentration of 0.75% to 2.0.0% to 2.0%. the baits have strong pungent garlic-like odor characteristic for phosphine liberated by hydrolysis. The odor attracts (or, at least, does not repulse) rodents, but has repulsive effect on other mammals. Birds, notably wild turkeys are not sensitive to the smell, and will feed on the bait, and thus become collateral damage.
The tablets or pellets (usually aluminium, calcium or magnesium phosphide for fumigation/gassing) may also contain other chemicals which evolve ammonia, which helps to reduce the potential for spontaneous ignition or explosion of the phosphine gas.

Phosphides do not accumulate in the tissues of poisoned animals so the risk of secondary poisoning is low.
Phosphides are rather fast – acting rat poisons, resulting in the rats dying usually in open areas, instead of in the affected buildings.
Phosphides used as rodenticides are:
• aluminium phosphide (fumigant only)
• calcium phosphide (fumigant only)
• magnesium phosphide (fumigant only)


• zinc phosphide (in baits)
Other Chemical poisons include:
• ANTU (a-naphthylthiourea; specific against Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus
• Arsenic
• Barium (a toxic metal) compound
Barium carbonate
• Bromethalin (which affects the nervous system, no antidote
• Chloralose (narcotic acting condensation product of chloral and glucose)
• Crimidine (2-chloro-N, N,6-trimethypyrimidin-4-amine; a synthetic convulsant poison, antivitamin B6)
• 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (“Gliftor” in the former USSR)
• Endrin (organochlorine cyclodiene insecticide, used in the past for extermination of voles in fields during winter by aircraft spraying)

• Fluoroacetamide (“1081”)
• Phosacetim (a delayed-action organoophosphorous rodenticide)
• White phosphorus
• Pyrinuron (an urea derivative)
• Scilliroside
• Sodium fluoroacetate(“1080)
• Strychnine
• Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (“tetramine”)
• Thallium (a toxic heavy metal) compounds
• Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide absorbed in an inert carrier)

These are poisons that have been developed specifically to kill rats and mice. They consist of ‘first generation’ poisons such as Warfarin and Coumatetraly and ‘second generation’ poisons such as Brodifacoum, Bromadiolone and Difenacoum.

Most of our rodenticides contain either Bromadiolone or Difenacoum, which are anti-coagulants.
These poisons affect the rodents blood clotting response, so after a few days the rodents will die as a result of internal hemorrhaging. The poison effectively thins the blood to the extent that blood seeps internally from tiny blood vessels and organs quickly resulting in heart failure which ultimately kills the rat.

You may know someone who takes minute amounts of prescription warfarin (a first generation rodenticide) in order to thin their blood to help prevent strokes. Strokes
-8-
are caused by thick blood clotting and stopping the flow of blood to vital areas like the brain. Often people under this medication can bruise very easily and this is because the tiny blood veins next to their skin break easily when damaged and blood seeps from the veins causing the bruising. These people are completely unaware of this process in their bodies in exactly the same way as the rodent is completely unaware of the process in action.
The rodents feel fine, suffering no pain and therefore they continue to feed as normal, consuming a lethal dose before succumbing to the effects of the poison. This is important, as rats in particular will quickly stop eating anything that they associate with danger, in the latter stages of poisoning, the rodents feel lethargic and tend to stay in their nests, where most of them die. The occasional one may die above ground, and you should always search for bodies whilst you are conducting a poisoning campaign.

Bait stations are a highly effective way of swiftly dealing with mice in buildings or in the home. Bait should always be placed within approved bait stations and difenacoum is the bait of choice. However, if you prefer not to use rodenticides, mice-unlike rats-are very easy to trap and trapping is generally our preferred method of control.

(b) TRAPPINGS:-
Break back rat traps are similar in appearance to normal break back mouse traps, but much more powerful. They are cheap to buy and easy to set.
Rats are notoriously difficult to trap. It is most unlikely that even a professional will manage to trap all the rats in a colony because, apart from being very cautious of new objects in their territory, they also learn very quickly from other rat’s experiences. So, if see a rat being caught in a trap, the older rats in particular tend to avoid similar situations and quickly become ‘trap shy’.
Leave the traps unset but baited for a couple of days before you activate the traps. You should quickly catch two or three, but after that things will get difficulty.

Mice are inquisitive creatures and will quickly check out any new objects in their territory. They don’t seem to learn from the experiences of their chums so they are amongst the easiest of all creatures to trap. The key is to use lots of traps, two in a single kitchen cupboard, four under the sink, ten in loft, those sorts of numbers. Bait the traps with a little peanut butter and you are off. Check them twice a day and don’t be surprised if you catch a lot of mice, there are probably many more than you at first think.

Spring traps like the Mark 4 Fenn trap can be quite effective when set correctly. They are much more powerful than the break back traps and must be handled with great care. Always remember to flip on the safety catch until you have the trap in the right position and then flip off the catch with a long stick or similar. By law these traps may only be used when covered by a tunnel to prevent access by cats and other animals. They are usually set with the treadle plate flush to the ground and then camouflaged with a small amount of soil. They should be secured to the ground by their chain.

Everyone seems to be selling these sticky glue traps but the is rarely any justification for using this inhumane method of control. Have a look at our video vault to see a rat being caught in a glue trap. The glue boards do cause the animal considerable stress and suffering.
Electronic traps do work, and kill rats. However, they are expensive and they will only ever take out the occasional bold rat. They won’t kill any more than cage or break-back traps and they require expensive batteries to run them.

This is the way to catch rats in electronic kill traps.
• Don’t expect these units to deal with an entire colony because they won’t do so any more than any other live or kill trap will succeed.
• For an occasional intruder they work OK.
• Set the trap pretty much anywhere that the rat frequents. Bait it with peanut butter stuck to the back wall of the trap. Don’t switch the trap on until the rat has started to take the peanut butter. Next evening switch the trap on.
• The next day you should have your rat, and you can be sure it will not have suffered for long, a couple of minutes at the most.
• I would still rather use a break back trap (cheaper and quicker to kill).
Rats are extremely cautions of traps of any kind; they just seem to know when danger is around.
You may catch a few rats with cages, provided you follow this guide but I can pretty much guarantee that you will not catch the whole colony.
- Use several cage traps unless you are just dealing with one or two invaders.
- Place the traps in position, open, unset, but baited and leave for several days until rats are feeding confidently from inside the cages.


Set all the traps one evening.
Next day you should have a rat or two.
- Continue to bait and set the traps, but if no success start again leaving the traps open but baited.
- Be patient, this exercise can take several weeks, by which time you could have safely and humanely eliminated the whole colony by using poison baits.
If you chose to use cage traps, I assume that is because you don’t want to kill the rat but would rather release it into the fields.
When you release the rat, make sure that it is several miles away because the moment it is out of the cage is only intention it’s to get back home – and it will soon work out in which direction home is.

On its way back home it will almost certainly die from stress, starvation or it will become a meal for some predator just looking for a little lost creature. It will not be allowed to join any other rat colonies; rather it will be viciously driven from each rat territory it crosses on its way home.

Catch and release is the least humane and most ineffectual option for controlling a small colony of rats, and is utterly useless with a large colony.
Mice, on the other hand are most obliging and will readily go into any sort of live capture trap. Bait it with a bit of peanut butter, check twice a day and just keep trapping and removing.

The same applies to catch and release mice at to rats above. It is not humane, but if it makes you feel better, well at least it will be providing some predator out there with an easy meal, so you can feel good about that.
Make sure you release a mile or so from home or you will just keep on catching the same mice as they wearily arrive home.
Check your traps twice a day don’t forget them and leave the occupants to die of starvation.

© ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL:-
Control of rats in our premises can be effected environmentally. This involves the control of all factors that may encourage the breeding or propagation of rats and mice in our environment.

Such factors include:-
- Maintaining a very clean environment devoid of overgrown weeds
- Proper stacking/storage of food items in our environment
- Grating of entrance doors with metals to discourage gnawing for entrance by rats.
- Proper disposal of our domestic refuse
- All holes/hollows/channels/drainages within our environment should be properly constructed to discourage burrowing by rats or mice.
- Indiscriminate stacking of unserviceable articles/junks in our environment should be discouraged.
- Screening of our windows to disallow rat entrance etc.

(d) BIOLOGICAL CONTROL:-
This in recent times have not proved to be very effective in our living environment. The method involves the use of Predators (e.g. cats) who feed on rats to exterminate them. It is now a common occurrence that rats and cats are co-habitors of living premises.

CONCLUSION:-
Extermination or control of rat is inevitable particularly when their natural habitat is being threatened day in and out due to infrastructural developments. There is hardly a premises without raes particularly in the cities where ‘Rats’ are now being seen diurnally as against their nocturnal nature.
This poses a challenge to the Environmental Health Practitioners who are professional in pest and Vector Control.








REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Leirs H (2009). “The Year of the Rat ends: time to fight hunger!”
2. Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Kijlstra A (2009). “Rodent-borne disease and their risks for public health”.
3. Merk Veterinary Manual Global Zoonoses Table” Retrieved 2006-11-24.
4. Rats Capable Of Reflecting On Mental Processes
5. Gibbs RA et al: Genome sequence of the Brown Norway rat yields insights into mammalian evolution,: Nature. 2004 April 1; 428(6982):475-6
6. “Individual differences and a spatial learning factor in two strains of mice (Mus musculus)’
7. “Novelty-Seeking in Outbred Mice Covaries with General Learning Abilities Irrespective of Stress Reactivity, Emotionality and Physical Attributes”
8. “Domain-Specific and Domain-General Learning Factors are Expressed in Genetically Heterogeneous CD-1 mice”
9. National Environmental Sanitation Policy & guidelines developed by the
Federal Ministry of Environment, Abuja.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS ASSOCIATION WANTS TRAINED PERSONNEL TO HANDLE FUMIGATION

The Lagos State Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria (EHOAN) on Friday recommended that only trained personnel should be allowed to fumigate homes and industries.


Mr Lawal Oludare, the president of the association, made the recommendation in an interview with the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) in Lagos.


He said that fumigation involved the use of chemicals which must be administered properly to avoid wrong usage.
According to him, wrong usage of chemicals can be injurious to health.


He said that the state ministry of environment was planning to set up a committee that would ensure adherence to rules and ethical conducts of environmental health Officers.


Oludare stressed the need for all industries, private and government establishments to comply with the law regulating the conduct of fumigation and pest control services.


According to him, there is need to get rid of rats that have invaded both homes and offices.
``In all industries, there is need for `de-ratisation’; that is making a work place free from rat.


``They will fumigate such premises against all other pets, like where mosquitoes breed and all these things are identified; and we serve notices; and actually enforce law on them.


``We want to ensure that when that committee is put in place we will go from place to place to ensure that the right personnel is the one that is actually fumigating and controlling pests. ’’
He noted that when chemicals were wrongfully used, they could lead to health problems.
``If wrong bio-chemicals are used in fumigation, basically the danger is inherent on the entire environment which includes human existence.


``The wrong chemical, when used inappropriately, either in the under-dose form or over-dose form, would amount to health problem.


`` It’s either the result is not gotten, that the rats pests are not controlled or human lives are endangered by accumulation of unregulated chemicals.’’
The association president advised that chemicals used in fumigation should be regulated by the National Agency for Drug and Administrative and Control (NAFDAC).


He also suggested that the agency should also determine the right doses of chemicals to be used during fumigation as well as the right personnel to be engaged.

ENVIRONMEN​TAL HEALTH OFFICERS SEEK MORE ROLE

Enugu, Sept. 6, 2012

Environmental health officers in the country on Thursday called on the various tiers of governments to make effective use of their skills to eradicate diseases.


Addressing a workshop on pests and vectors management in environmental health practice in Enugu, the Registrar of the Environmental Health Officers Registration Council, Mr Augustine Ebisike, said the officers could eradicate 70 per cent of diseases in the country.


Ebisike said that rather than spend huge sums in carrying out some health programmes abroad, the governments should look inward and listen to professionals to eradicate such diseases.


``The issue of pests and vectors control has become a growing public health concern to us. Rodent population has exploded in many of our urban centres. Mosquitoes and other vermin population have equally exploded due to the emphasis on the use of bed nets instead of basic cleanliness.


``As environmental health officers, we believe these diseases can be better tackled and controlled by the use of preventive measures which are less expensive and sustainable rather than the use of medicines in a vicious circle of trying to control the diseases.
``When we tell people to be sleeping under bed nets instead of making sure that mosquitoes are not breeding around them, there will be no end to it. Instead of us to clear the wastes, we are being attacked by rats.


``Today some diseases that we only read in schools, some of us they didn’t teach us anything about lassa fever in school. Today, we cannot graduate as an environmental health officer without being grounded on how to prevent lassa fever.


``And if government cooperates with us, we are going to eradicate polio; not by the so-called every day immunisation, immunisation works but it should be a second line of defence. The first line of defence against polio is improved sanitation.’’
He called on Nigerians to stop engaging untrained persons to fumigate their offices, homes and business environments.


``If these services are required, Nigerians are advised to seek the services of licensed environmental health officers who can be found in all health offices across the country for guidance.’’


Earlier, the President of the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria in Enugu State, Mr Patrick Esomchi, noted that the emerging environmental challenges in the country underscored the need for the workshop.


More than 300 environmental health officers, formerly called sanitary inspectors, from various parts of the country, are attending the two-day workshop.

THE PLACE OF HSE IN FOOD INSPECTION

BY W. D. AMAKIRI
Being a paper presented at the Thematic Training of Environmental health Officers on Health, Safety and Environment, in Benin-City, May, 2012

1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION
HSE is an acronym which means Health, Safety and Environment. Conceptually, it refers, to a process tool that is used in managing the health, safety and environmental concerns of an organization. Health, safety and environmental concerns of an organization refer to how the work force of an organization can remain healthy, safe and work in an environment devoid of issues that will be harmful or prejudicial to health and well being; that is, work in an environment devoid of hazards.

What this means is that it is a management system, normally, deployed to scientifically handle the negative HSE issues and concerns of various work processes. Because it is used in the scientific management of those issues which would negatively impact the work force in the work processes at work and the environment, the EHO as a key expert in the environmental work team must be well grounded in its conception and application. The EHO stands to benefit from its application to the science of food hygiene inspection, so as to be able to identify and eliminate food safety hazards. It is, therefore, the aim of this paper to highlight the application of this concept in food inspection.

2. DEPLOYMENT OF HSE IN FOOD INSPECTION
The basic aspect of the HSE management process or system, is the identification of hazards and putting in place systems that work effectively to eliminate such hazards or reducing them to As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP) where they cannot be eliminated. The sole aim is to make the work environment and work place safe to a standard that makes it harmless.

Similarly, the role of the EHO in food inspection is to identify and eliminate food safety hazards or hazards inherent in food so as to activate measures that can be put in place to render unwholesome food wholesome and safe for consumption.

3. HSE TOOLS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN FOOD INSPECTION
The basic HSE tools of hazard identification are unsafe acts and unsafe conditions audits, inspection of work processes, inspection of personnel during work, inspection of work methods and auditing and inspection of work tools and equipment.
Audit involves a purposeful inspection walk through of the work environment, taking a critical look at the work place touching all the significant areas mentioned above with the sole aim of identifying inherent hazards and recommending strategies for their elimination or reduction. It includes critically inspecting the various aspects and processes in the work area and environment with a view to uncovering inherent hazards. Such identified hazards are recorded and reported to the process owner(s) for correction and or re-engineering for the purpose of rectification and or remediation.

Unsafe act audits, unlike other HSSE audit tools which aim at identifying work processes, tools and equipment, rather aim at identifying the behavioural shortfalls of the worker that can result in creating a hazard or hazardous situation that may lead to an accident.

3.1. APPLICATION
Similarly, the EHO can apply these tools to inspect food, food handlers, food handling and preparation processes and food preparation premises to identify food safety hazards and recommend strategies for reducing or eliminating them to ALARP. In case of work processes and methods that cannot be corrected, a well documented change process, agreed by the parties, should be put in place to change the process and or method to a safe one.

3.2. AREAS TO APPLY THESE TOOLS (AREAS OF COVERAGE)
Areas of concern where these tools can be applied are:
i. The food transportation process;
ii. The food stores (cold and dry) and other storage facilities;
iii. The kitchen which includes cooking equipment and utensils, floors, service drains personnel i.e. all categories of food handlers and designated waste management tools and equipment.

4. HSE AND FOOD HANDLING PERSONNEL
The HSSE tool can also be used to assess some health parameters of food handling personnel in areas such their personal health, personal hygiene and the use of personal protection equipment (PPE) in food handling.

4.1. HEALTH OF FOOD HANDLERS: By health of food handlers we mean the state of fitness of the food handler. State of fitness refers to the physical, mental and social wellbeing of the food handler.
The current practice in determining the fitness of food handlers does not lie only in medical examination but rather on the implementation of a fitness to work (FTW) regime. This process involves the filling out of a questionnaire by the food handler stating his/her health status. This questionnaire is kept as the baseline data on the health of the food handler. It is used in assessing the health of the food handler in times of illness. A food handler is made to update the questionnaire each time he/she stays away from work due to ill health. The updating must include the type of ill health that kept the food handler away from work. This process thus gives facility owner and visiting EHO to make a good assessment of the health status personnel and gets some fall back data base during the investigation of a food poisoning incident.

4.2. PERSONAL HYGIENE: Personal hygiene of food handlers refers to the state of cleanness of the food handler and this is a function of the general maintenance of the body. The hair, the finger and toe nails, the armpits and pubic regions and all other enclosed parts and the entire body and clothes must be scrupulously cleaned and maintained at all times. It also involves proper bathing and wash ups and care of the private and enclosed parts of the earlier mentioned. Hairs must be on low cut or covered with appropriate head gear.

4.3. PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT (PPE) Food handlers must always wear PPE when on duty. Apart from helping to protect the food handler during an accident, it also keeps him or her comfortable and gives a sense of pride thereby increasing productivity.


References
1. Clay’s handbook of Environmental Health, W. H. Basset and F.G. Davies; 1981 H. K. Lewis & Co Ltd, London.
2. FOOD Poisoning and Food Hygiene 2nd ed., Betty C. Hobbs; 1970 Spattishwoode, Ballantyne & Co Ltd, London and Golchester.
3. Coroner’s Practical Food Hygiene, Coroner Publications Ltd, London.

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT: CHALLENGES OF THE CURRENT DEMOCRATIC DISPENSATION

By Professor F. 0. OLA TUNJI
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Lagos,
Akoka — Yaba,
LAGOS.
A paper presented at the 39th Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria, held in Lagos, 2003

1.0 INTRODUCTION
It gives me great pleasure and I feel highly honoured to be invited to deliver a plenary address at this your 39th Annual National Conference of the Nigerian Environmental Health Officers Association (NEHOA) taking place at the Banquet Hall, Lagos Airport Hotel, Lagos. I can see that I am to speak on the theme of this Conference, viz, “Health, Safety and Environment: Challenges of the Current Democratic Dispensation”. This theme cuts across many areas in the wide field of Health, Safety and Environment (HSE). We must immediately recognize that this Conference is for Environmental Health Officers and therefore we must emphasize aspects that relate to environmental health in this conference. It is well known that health, safety and environment are very much inter-related and any nation that believes in proper development of its people must consider this trio-based activity.
I wish to congratulate your organizers for choosing such a timely theme/topic at this time of our nation’s development in the present democratic dispensation.

2.0 WHAT IS “HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT (HSE)?”
It is well known that man’s activities have impacted heavily on Mother Nature and those activities have caused deterioration in the quality of the environment and health, and poor safety conditions. Audu (1) had looked at the evolution of HSE management in the world as reported in a workshop in the year, 2000. The point has been made that the focus of man is predominantly exploitative involving unhealthy race/competition. Also, there was the wrong notion that the environment is ever assimilative, thus assuming that the Earth was inexhaustible in resources and characteristically discrete in behaviour. It was only in the area of safety that Man’s activities even in the olden days had slightly taken some precautions because of the direct impact on the people. This means that indirect impacts on man never receive as much attention for precautionary measures as direct impacts. It is interesting to note that, even in the olden days, safety was managed by instincts and not by scientific analysis or structured approach. Thus, “historical failures” determined how to prevent future occurrences of safety failures.
It is important to note Audu’s assertion in his paper that the Environmental and Occupational health aspects did not attract equivalent attention until much later historically largely because of their indirect impact on man’s wellbeing. We are told that with booming economy, various governments awoke to their responsibility of policy making and enforcing the regulations. We must mention here the establishment of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) IN 1988 which has served as an effective regulatory body in the control of quality of the environment.
Also it was interesting to note that increased public awareness (people standing up to their rights) has literally “cajoled” industries to taking a hard look at their processes in a bid to align the industries towards effective management of HSE aspects.
Because of their interrelationships, the HSE matters were elevated and structures of managing them put in place just like that for any process activity. It has since metamorphosed and given birth to the management system (MS) of HSE. Nigeria cannot afford to trail behind with her fast emerging and liberated economy. In any case, public awareness is ever Increasing and agitation is also becoming sophisticated. There now exists in the very developed companies HSE-Management System manual known as HSE-MS Manual. This manual is a documentation of systemic approach to management of HSE- critical aspect of our activities and an attestation of commitment to sustainable development.
Being a management tool the HSE-MS draws its existence from a Business Model (BM), Quality Management System (QMS) and Hazard and Effects Management Process (HEMP). It is hoped that Nigeria will soon adopt widely the concept of the development and use of the HSE-MS manual.
Let us at this juncture look at an example of HSE policy as enunciated by Mobil Producing Nigeria (MPN). In a paper written by Chief O.T. Olagbende, Manager, Environmental Affairs, MPN in year 2000 (2), HSE Policy for MPN states that “Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited is committed to safeguarding public health and protecting the physical environment of Nigeria” . The paper continues thus: “In recognition of this commitment, MPN complies with all applicable environmental laws and regulations and additionally strives to reduce overall emissions and encourage pollution prevention in Its operations wherever technically and economically feasible. In implementing its HSE Policy, MPN emphasizes among other measures, Pollution Prevention by encouraging techniques such as sources reduction, process modifications, reuse and improved housekeeping. Management of these techniques is achieved through procedure outlined in MPN Waste Management Programme. Also emphasized is participation in the Development and Transfer of Environmental Technology aimed at improving methods of storage, transportation, handling, treatment and disposal of wastes generated from its operations.”

3.0 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES IN NIGERIA.
For a Conference of Environmental Health Officers, the subject of occupational health services must be very important. In a paper presented at a Workshop in year 2000 (3), Chike Nwokike, Medical Adviser to Lever Brothers Plc looked at the Effective Organisation of Occupational Health Services in Nigeria. The summary of the paper is discussed here. The first thing to note is the WHO/ILO assertion that “every citizen of the world has a right to healthy and safe work, and to a work environment that enables him or her to live a socially and economically productive life. Nwokike’s paper reviewed the subject of occupational health and its practice In Nigeria and suggested strategies for improvement at the national level and within organizations, using modern management systems. We are told that Occupational Health is defined by the WHO and ILO as the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers of all occupations. Other aspects of the paper by Nwokikle are summarized below:
Occupational health is primarily concerned with health in its relation to work and the working environment and is largely preventive in nature. Occupational health seeks to protect workers from hazards at work and prevent work-related illness. In addition, occupational health is also concerned with preventing adverse effects on the work as a result of the health status of the worker. It is said that WHO declares that occupational health is an important strategy not only to ensure the health of workers, but also to contribute positively to productivity, quality of products, work motivation, job satisfaction and thereby to the overall quality of life of individuals and society.
You may wonder what is the result of inadequate occupational health and safety services. This is said to result in poor working environments with uncontrolled exposure of workers to hazardous conditions. This situation can be costly to the individual workers, the employers and the country at large as a whole in terms of human misery and financial losses.
The results of inadequate occupational health and safety services include the following:
i. Injuries and deaths from work-related accidents.
ii. Acute and chronic illness from work exposure.
iii. Increased sickness, absence and loss of man-hours.
iv. Low morale, low productivity.
v. High medical costs.
vi. Avoidable damage to machinery from accidents
vii. Poor quality products
viii. Poor public Image
ix. Higher costs, lower sales leading to lower profits.
It is worth noting that the development of adequate occupational health and safety services in Nigeria has been hampered by the following factors:
a. Insufficient knowledge and understanding of the critical issues involved in occupational health and safety on the part of the workers, management, employers and even government.
b. Many of the workers are illiterate and are not able to adequately understand the machinery and appreciate hazards of the industrial processes and chemicals.
c. High rate of unemployment means high reservoir of low cost manpower and consequently the value of labour is not appreciated.
d. Cultural factors — for example a fatalistic outlook that accepts accidents or occupational disease as inevitable..
e. Inadequate training facilities in occupational health and safety.
f. Inadequate and ineffective legislation-poorly enforced.
g. Non-reporting of accidents and occupational diseases resulting in inaccurate statistics.
h. Poorly focused Trade Unions who are more interested in wages etc than improvement in health and safety.
i. Lack of commitment and direction by government.
It must be mentioned here that many organizations and industries in Nigeria, instead of encouraging the provision of proper and core occupational health and safety services, have encouraged the provision of limited curative services usually through general practitioners on retainership basis. The exceptions are few of our multinational companies in Nigeria like Unilever Brothers, Cadbury, Nestle etc. as well as some Oil companies including the NNPC.

- Special e.g. drivers’ medical, food handlers
(iii) Supervision of the Working Environment
- Regular factory/work area visits
- Advice on industrial hygiene
- Hazard Identification
- Personal Protective Equipment/Clothing Supervision
- Environmental Monitoring
- Ergonomics Control.
(iv) Biological Monitoring e.g. Audiometry, Lung Function Test.
(v) Supervision of Food Hygiene
(vi) Advice to Management and Staff on Occupational Health
(vii) Health Education/Training e.g. in health, hygiene, first aid etc.
(viii) Health Promotion, Counselling
(ix) Supervision of Sanitary Conveniences and General Cleanliness
(x) Records/Health Statistics
(xi) Research/Teaching.
We need to take note of the final point made in Nwodike’s paper as to the need for establishing integrated occupational health, safety and environmental services unit, It is now a normal practice in many large organizations in the developed countries to have this type of integrated system. This helps In ensuring coordinated efforts in providing high standard and efficient servides.
It is important to develop an integrated Health, Safety and Environmental policy for a given company as advocated by Nwodike. This Health, Safety and Environment Unit would act as an indispensable advisory service to which all levels of management and production can systematically turn for advice whenever necessary.
4.0 HSE AUDIT AND ITS IMPORTANCE
The question we should ask ourselves at this point is why HSE Audit? In order to answer this question, we need to even know what HSE Audit is all about. Ndukwe (4), in a Workshop paper in the year 2000, took a look at Health, Safety and Environmental Audit. His paper defines auditing of health, safety, and environment as a process of monitoring an organization’s ongoing management of the various activities that can have an impact on human heal! h, safety or on the environment. Ndukwu asserts that a sure way of assuring a community that an organization’s operations do not pose unreasonable risks to human beings, or to the environment, is by having an audit conducted by skilled personnel using state-of-the-art-techniques. In addition, he says that it is advantageous to an organization if, from time to time, it does safety and environmental audit of its facilities especially when an audit ensures that an organization complies with all applicable regulatory and internal policies.
Ndukwe gives a brief account of what Health, Safety and Environmental audit is all about. This is as follows:

Audit Planning
At the audit planning stage, the auditors decided on the form of written document to guide them in the fieldwork portion of the audit. This document is usually known as audit protocol.
Understanding Internal Management Systems and Procedures
This is the first on-site activity of the auditors. The auditors must have accurate understanding of the facility’s management systems, standard practices and procedures, and be able to relate them to the scope of the audit. The auditors develop a working understanding of how the facility manages its activities, which can impact its Health, Safety and Environmental performance.
Assessing Strengths and Weakness of Internal Controls
In this step, the aim is to assess the facility’s environmental management systems and the engineered controls, whether if operating as intended will yield results that meet external regulatory requirements and any internal standards. The review and evaluation are intended to reveal the inadequacies in the facility’s health, safety and environmental management systems and to suggest ways of improving the management systems and/or engineered controls as the case may be.

Gathering Audit Evidence/Findings.
The first thing to do before gathering audit evidence is that the team develops a testing plan which includes verification strategies, sampling methods, and approximate time allocations for doing specific jobs. The audit team must ensure that evidence is gathered in accordance with testing plans to determine compliance with governmental and internal requirements and to verify that each of the environmental management systems included in the audit is working as designed and intended.

Evaluating Audit Results.
Prior to audit results being evaluated, each auditor should check his/her assigned protocol steps to ascertain that they have been completed and, if not, what additional information is needed. There is also a need to review the list of audit exceptions to ensure that they are all factually correct.
Audit results to be evaluated include audit findings (an overall statement of compliance with regulatory requirements or conformance with internal standards), exceptions (specific deficiencies with respect to applicable regulations or internal requirements), and observations (which may include exemplary practices, but more often may include specific deficiencies or areas of concern).
Reporting Audit Findings and Exceptions
This is the final step in the basic 6-step audit process. The report should accurately reflect the audit findings, exceptions, and observations.
Ndukwe’s conclusion is worth noting.
a. That the focus of audit report should be on compliance with regulations, policies and procedures, and good management practices (not on individuals or their mistakes).
b. That the main aim of an audit is to recognise good practices, update procedures, eliminate exceptions, and sensitise an organisation on issues which in future will be important to health, safety and environment.

5.0 CASE STUDIES OF RESEARCH WORK ON WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN THE PRESENT DEMOCRATIC DISPENSATION
This paper concludes with case studies of current research findings by graduates of the Postgraduate Diploma (PGD) programme in HSE at the College of Medicine, University of Lagos (CMUL). These researches have been carried out on present problems in our local environment and these are only a tip of the iceberg.
Case Study 1: Mushin Local Government Area of Lagos State.
a. Title of Project: “The Problem of Solid Waste Management and Its Effect on Community Health in Mushin Local Government”. Sanusi, A.K. PGD/HSE, College of Medicine Project, 2000.
b. Brief Comments from the Author’s Work
Waste Management in Mushin Local Government remains an environmental problem that is becoming more complex on daily basis. The current challenge calls for the government, private sectors, voluntary organization, to harmonise their activities to promote sustainable management of waste. The different methods of solid waste management in Mushin Local Government are listed as follows: Burning, Burying, House Collection, Incineration, Open Dumping, Twin Litter Bins’ Communal Refuse Depots, Cart Pushing and Land Fill Sites.
c. Recommendations from the Author’s Work (only a few given here)
i. There should be a statutory requirement that all solid waste emanating from home, offices and factories must be sorted and placed in labeled polythene bags for the private operators to collect.
ii. It is reasonable that sorting of waste begins at sources. Categories into which the waste can be sorted include plastics, metals, non-metals and organic paper.
iii. Indiscriminate dumping of waste or dropping of litter on roads or into gutter or public drains should be legislated against and should attract a minimum penalty to discourage people against it.
iv. Enforcement must be strict and should be handled by specially trained environmental health officers equipped with motor-cycles or vehicles for mobility and accessibility.
v. Lagos State Waste Management Authority should create fence and supervise dumping sites at suitable locations well away from building areas to which all those within the locality must take their waste.
vi. The local government councils should supplement the effort of the private sector participation (PSP) by a sort of mopping up exercises, for example, removing of waste from the public places, schools, hospitals, open places, public drains, roads, median and verge.
vii. The local government should commence the teaching of environmental health and safety subjects in the primary schools, as a means of catching them young and also of reaching out to their parents and getting them to develop environmentally-friendly habits.
viii. Licensing of private waste management operations should be done by the local government, using ward clusters as operating base units.
ix. These operators must, as a prerequisite for licencing, produce evidence of their ability to mobilize the resources, i.e. men, tippers, needed for their job
x. The environmental department of the local government should be adequately funded in order to enable the mopping up exercises to be successfully carried out and the environmental equipment to be purchased, such as rakes, hand-shovels, tippers and mechanical shovels.
xi. The environmental health officers of the local government need to be exposed to more management training exercises to enable them learn modern management concepts which will help them plan their work better and learn to think more critically and creatively about their work.
xii. Finally, there is need to employ more environmental health officers in the State. Presently, the number of environmental health officers in the State as at year 2000 is less than 800 which is just too small to cope with the challenges in the State.
Case Study 2: Epe Local Government Area of Lagos State.
a. Title of Project: “Environmental Impacts of Bush Burn/nc, and other Burning Activities in Epe Local Government Area of Lagos State.”. Amacho, T PGD/HSE, College of Medicine, Unilag Project 2000.
b. Brief Comments from the Author’s Work
Epe Local Government Area is a rural setting with a population of 219,891 by the National Population Commission data of 1990. It is bounded on the West by lkorodu Local Government Area and on the South by lbeju-Lekki Local Government Areas both of Lagos State. The boundary on the North is by Odogbolu Local Government Area of Ogun State and on the East by Iwopin Riverine Local Government area also of Ogun State. The main occupation of the people are farming, fishing and petty trading.
Bush burning is an activity that is mostly carried out by farmers in Epe LGA in order to prepare the land for farming which is one of the major occupations of the indigenes. Apart from bush burning, other burning activities considered and studied were domestic or household burning (also termed residential burning), industrial burning, and burning in public place.
c. Recommendations from the Author’s Work
i. Awareness should be created among the people on the dangers of burning activities especially through community involvement and participation.
ii. There should be provision of adequate ventilation in case of domestic burning.
iii. There should be promulgation of laws against indiscriminate burning activities relating to bush burning, refuse burning and burning of garden weeds.
iv. Community watchmen should be engaged in the monitoring of indiscriminate burning within the community.
v. There should also be regular monitoring of the state of the environment by the State Government through the activities of the advisory committee on environmental sanitation set up by the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning.
vi. Attempt should be made to convert heat energy produced by incinerators, furnaces and burners into steam for treating and drying processes.
vii. There should be provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), such as nose masks, for workers in the burning or incineration industry if air pollution cannot be controlled or reduced to a minimum.
viii. Environmental education should be introduced into School Curriculum especially at the primary and secondary levels.
Case Study 3: Ikeja Local Government Area of Lagos State.
a. Title Project: “Private Sector Participation in Domestic Refuse Collection and Disposal: A Viable Option in Solid Waste Management in Ike] a Local Government Area of Lagos State” lyoriobhe, V.E. PGD/HSE, College of Medicine Project, 2002.
b. Brief Comments from the Author’s Work
Ikeja Local Government is one of the twenty local governments in Lagos State. The Local Govenment area is bounded in the North by Agege and lfako-ljaye Local Governments, in the East by Kosofe and Sornolu Local Governments, in the South by the Mushin Local Government and in the West by Oshodi/Isolo and Alimosho Local Governments. lkeja Local Government area is a mini-Nigeria in setting, with almost all the tribes present, though the majority of the inhabitants are predominantly Yoruba speaking people. The population according to 1991 census figures is 281,530. The project focuses on the Involvement of private sector participation (PSP) in domestic refuse ‘collection and disposal in Ikeja Local Government Area. As at the time of the project in the year 2002, there were twenty-six (26) private sector refuse operators.
c. Recommendations from the Author’s Work
i. There are inadequate resources militating against effective solid waste management. These resources are pay loaders, bulldozers, tippers, compacting vehicles, dino chassis and bins, cleaning implements and funds. Adequate provision of these sources will enhance solid waste management.
ii. There is a need for private sector to be involved in solid waste management in all the urban local government areas in the country since they have similar problems in solid waste management. This is because the government cannot bear the burden of solid waste management alone as a result of the huge cost. More importantly, those who generate the refuse that pollute the environment should pay for its evacuation. The programme is working in Lagos State.
iii. There is a need for recruitment of skilled personnel such as Sanitary Engineers, Environmentalists, Geologists and Environmental Health Officer to take charge of solid waste management. These personnel should be able to plan and coordinate all the processes involved in solid waste management.
iv. There should be adequate and proper town planning for effective sold waste management. For example, there is a need to provide good access roads which should be properly linked to one another. Other needs are street lights and good drainage system. All these will ease the evacuation of refuse from all the nooks and crannies of the city.
v. There is also a need to put in place development and extension of Health Education Services.
There is no doubt that if every Nigerian has been duly and sufficiently exposed to Health Education, the environmental sanitation of Lagos state in general would change for the better. A well-planned and coordinated environmental health education programme for all the communities in the state should be given high priority.
vi. There should be comprehensive environmental legislation. The laws relating to environmental sanitation offences should be made comprehensive. The cases should be tried in courts especially set up for environmental sanitation and related matters. Stiff penalties should be meted out to offenders. The enforcement officers should ensure that the laws are enforced to its logical conclusion.
vii. Refuse waste should be sorted out at source of storage. The reusable materials should be bagged in bags with different colours. The items should be identified with the colour of the bags.
viii. The private sector operators in solid waste management should be strengthened in terms of acquisition of appropriate equipment such as tippers and compacting vehicles. The government should fashion out a way to grant them loans directly or guarantee the loans in financial institutions. To ensure repayment, a mechanism to recover the money should be put in place.
ix. There should be sanctions for the private operators who do not perform according to the law. Any Private Sector Operator with lapses should be removed from the proramme. However, prior to the removal, he/she should be warned in writing at least three times.
x. Finally, there should be a way to reward the best worker and/or the best private refuse operator company. This reward system will motivate the workers, while it will also create competition among the operators.

6.0 CONCLUSION
The paper takes a look at Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) as it affects the Nigerian polity. The paper focuses on occupational health services in Nigeria and the need for establishing integrated HSE service units in organizations. The importance of HSE audit was highlighted especially to ensure compliance with regulations, policies and procedures as well as good management practices. Finally, in order to bring out the challenges of the current democratic dispensation, case studies of current research work on waste management problems in Lagos State were given and discussed.

7.0 REFERENCES

1. AUDU, Y.B. (200) “Managing HSE as Core Business” Nig. Soc, of Chem. Engineers Proceedings, Nov pp. 161-1 70.

2. OLAGBENDE, O.T. (2000) “Waste Management Programme-Mobil Producing Nigeria’s Experience”. The Punch, June 5, 2002


3. NWOKIKE, C. (2000) “Effective Organization of Occupational Health Services in Nigeria.” Nig. Soc, of Chem. Engineers” Proceedings, Nov. Pp.11-28.

4. NDUKWE, O.C. (2000). “Another Look at Health, Safety and Environmental Audit”. Nig. Soc. Of Chem. Engineers’ Proceedings, Nov. Pp. 92-98.

THE CHALLENGES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS IN PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IMPLEMENTATION

By S.A. Ojewale, being an invited paper presented at the 39th National conference/scientific workshop of the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN], at the Banquet Hall, Lagos Airport Hotel, October, 2003


Abstract
Since 1977, when the World Health Assembling endorsed Primary Health Care [PHC] as the new model for building health systems, progress in establishing accessible, affordable and appropriate health care has been painfully slow.
Following this, in May 1978, an international conference was headed by WHO member states in a town in former USSR called Alma-Ata where 134 nations including Nigeria declared that PHC is the key to attaining ‘health for all in the year 2000’.
Many health professionals were involved in the policy formulation, planning & implementation of PHC in Nigeria; one of such health cadres is Environmental Health Officer [EHO]. Environmental Health Officers are always in the fore-front since the inception of PHC in Nigeria, diagnosing, sieving & coping with the challenges arising from the implementations of PHC. This paper therefore, discusses where and what these challenges are and how EHOs are coping with the challenges now and in the future.




Introduction
Primary Health Care is posing a lot of challenges to Environmental Health Officers, the challenges, which are implicit or embedded in the definition, concepts, and also in the components of PHC, are so overwhelming and inundating that it is only those Environmental Health Officers that are articulate, well abreast, scientific with adequate native intelligence that could meet and tackle the challenges, many of which have reached crisis or danger point, after all when things [challenges] are going tough only the tough can get going.

Definition of PHC
I would have preferred to define PHC as people oriented service built on the axiom of health of the people, by the people, and for the people [Bamigboye 2001] and not perceived as the exclusive prerogative of health professions as observed by Lambo [1995], but the challenges will not be so glaring as I would want them. Even then, Environmental Health Tutors Officers should have it at the back of their minds that PHC requires concerted efforts and there should not be any role or professional conflicts or wrangling among all the stakeholders.

More importantly, PHC as defined by Alma-Ata in 1978 is essential health care, based on practical, scientifically sound & socially acceptable methods and technology, made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-relevance and self-determination.

Any discerning listener will quickly realize that there is more to the issue of interpreting correctly the definition and concept of PHC than its implementation. There are underlying disagreements over how PHC problems are defined, their degree of seriousness, who is responsible for solving them, and how amenable they are to solution. These disagreements run deep, they are based on different professional training, moral principle, different values and different assumptions.
In Nigeria, every health worker including EHO talks about Primary Health Care (PHC) but if you ask them to define or explain the term, they often offer funny explanations. This shows that as important as the program,, is, it is still not well understood even by those who are expected to plain and implement the programme. We must assist each other in the process of interpretation by identifying the appropriate context, that is which the actions concerned make the most sense.

CONCEPTS OF PHC
The concepts of PHC are equally important in its implementation just as its definition is, of course, the concepts are entrenched in the definition because, it must be socially acceptable to the people, scientifically simple and at a minimal affordable cost.
One may be tempted to gloss over the issue of affordability but it is a serious and indicting challenge. For instance, since 1977, when the World Health Assembly endorsed Primary Health Care (PHC) as the new model for building health systems, progress in establishing accessible, affordable and appropriate health care has been painfully slow. While expanded coverage of preventive and curative services has saved millions of lives, many of these gains have proven to be short lived. In many cases, the benefits of investments continue for only as long as funding lasts. In the poorest countries, Nigeria inclusive, dependency on external support is increasing especially for PHC services. Thus, despite considerable efforts and enthusiasm for PHC, neither governments nor donors have been successful in fostering lasting change in local capacity to deal with health problems in the developing countries. At Local, State and Federal Government levels we have Environmental Health Officers as PHC coordinators, Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) or measurement and Evaluation Managers. The big question is how sustainable are these programmes are at local, state and federal levels?

It is reported that the Primary Health Care (PHC) agenda rested on two hidden assumptions. One was the expectation that the world economy would continue to grow as it had throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The Second presumed that the volume of external support for PHC would increase to enable the transitions of PHC in developing countries. Neither of these assumptions was ever realized because of recession and debt, the oil crisis and declining terms of trade began to cripple the economies of many countries, it has not improved to date. What is more challenging than this?

COMPONENTS OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE (PHC)
I want to further illustrate the challenges of Environmental Health Officers in Primary Health Care (PHC) implementation by making reference to ten components of PHC. In this regard, I am completely ignoring the artificial but lose boundaries created between the components earmarking them for specific health cares. The obvious reason is that the Environment i.e. the sum total of the conditions within which organisms live directly or by implication embraces all the PHC components. It is therefore logical to assert that all the ten PHC components discussed here are sources of challenges to Environmental Health Officers.

MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH (MCH)
Maternal and Child Health (MCH) aims at promoting the health of mothers of child being age and their children, so that children have the opportunity for normal growth and development and so that the reproductive life of women does not constitute too much risk to their health and well-being. The situation of MCH is Nigeria today is not encouraging, Nigerian is one of the countries where maternal and infant mortality rates are very high, the condition become exaggerated and exacerbated by poor economic conditions and non-challant attitudes of males to reproductive health.
As long as MCH remains the exclusive reserve of Nurses and Midwives, many husbands and fathers of which Environmental Health Officers are, may not see the need to encourage family planning and exclusive breast feeding (Baby Friendly Initiative). Men should co-operate with women in reproductive health.
Early marriage leading t teenage pregnancy with a; its numerous complications and pregnancy in quick successions are inimical to the health of mothers. Environmental Health Officers should see and accept this as a challenge. They should not be alienated in what MCH or reproductive health is all about. Maternal and child health syllabus could be incorporated into the West African Health Examination Board (WAHEB) Curriculum.

PROVISION OF ESSENTIAL DRUGS AND APPROPRIATE TREATMENT OF COMMON DISEASES
Here Environmental Health Officers (EHOS) are rising up to met the challenges in the areas of Onchocerciasis, Guinea-worm, Tuberculosis and Leprosy (TBL) eradication control programmes. I am aware that many EHOS are TBL managers having undergone an intensive training in Kaduna. But for the Carter Foundation, Nigerians would have known that Dracontiasis is prevalent in our midst. The versatility of EHO training and the resilience of an average EHO are the hall mark which made it possible for the cadre to be actively involved in guinea-worm, Onchocerciasis (River blindness), tuberculosis and leprosy control and eradication programmes. The challenge to wipe out these diseases is not beyond human achievement. Environmental Health Officers (EHOS) played noble and major roles in the total eradication of smallpox in the early 70s.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF LOCALLY ENDEMIC DISEASES
In Nigeria, malaria fever, Schistosomiasis, meningitis etc. constitutes endemic diseases which contribute greatly to both morbidity and mortality of children and adults. All these diseases are preventable and can be controlled.
One of the prominent challenges of EHOS is PHC implementations is the problem of malaria fever. The scourge has been with us since and in the South West Region of Nigeria, it was comment in those days to see sanitary inspectors as they were called then holding a big ladle to sample stored water for mosquito larvae and pupae. Culprits were prosecuted and penalized. But this had gone with our colonial masters.
Malaria is a global crisis, which as a household world in the sub region is taken for granted. A Roll Back Malaria (RBM) survey shows that 1/5 of the world’s population is at risk of malaria. This proportion increases yearly as a result of climate change environmental degradation, breakdown in Health care and wars.
This survey also reveals that there are 400 million cases of malaria illness each and at least one million people die annually. Most of these deaths occur in African children and he number is growing. Malaria often in combination with other diseases kills a child every 30 second. The survey further states that among pregnant women malaria is wide spread causing low weight babies and stillbirths. Nearly 60% of miscarriages are due to malaria. It is a major killer of refugees in Africa. This background is necessary as stimulant so that we will know what we are facing.
Roll Back Malaria (RBM) founded by the government of malaria affected countries, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF and the World Bank met in Nigerians in year 2000 to see how they can half the burden of malaria for the world’s people by the year 2010.
Current WHO initiatives in malaria control such as Roll Back Malaria (RBM) emphasize the use of insecticide-treated nets (ITNS) as one of the key strategies for malaria prevention and control in sub-Saharan Africa. UNICEF and WHO have set the goal of providing 32 million nets and 320 million net treatment a year for the next decade to protect 80% of African households from malaria (West African Journal of Nursing Vol. II No. 2, November, 2002).
To start with, the sudden and astronomical rise in cases of malaria is a tacit indictment on our professional competency. We need to brace up and join the other stake holders, we cannot afford to be complacent and rely on past glory old fame, it is a matter of how do we stand now, not how we stood then small pox was eradicated.
It is clear from the information provided in many health education campaigns in sub-Sahara Africa that there is still confusion surrounding effective methods of individual and community malaria control. For instance, in many areas, it is suggested that people and communities should cut the grass and bushes in their premises as means of preventing malaria. However, it has been shown that this does not reduce the incidence of Anopheles (the genus of mosquito that transmits malaria). In sub-Sahara Africa female Anopheles mosquitoes predominantly feed late at night when most people are in bed, most frequently biting between 10:00 pm ad 4.00 am. Day-feeding culex mosquitoes do not carry the malaria parasites and therefore cannot transmit the disease. As of now insecticide treated nets (ITNs) is yielding positive result if field reports are anything to go by. Right now, the net has no contraindication but there are human barriers to the use of this net. This is an aspect of the work of EHOS, to create awareness of the safety and effectiveness of ITNs.
However, ITNs should be seen as a panacea or a fool proof approach to malaria control. Environmental, physical, biological and chemical control should be intensified more than ever before. Premium should be on Environmental, physical and biological control using community based and integrated approach.



FOOD AND NUTRITION AND DENTAL HEALTH
A hungry dog is an angry dog so says a proverb: This is true because except there is abundance supply of food items and at affordable means, the gospel of Primary Health Care will be falling on deaf ears. Environmental Health Officers are not agricultural officers but they can evolve an intersectoral collaboration to ensure food surplus. However, food adulteration, contamination due to poor handling or from dirty premises is quite challenging and common. We should closely work with National Agency for Food and Drug Administration (NAFDAC) in eradicating the use of poisonous chemicals as food additives, flavours enhancers and preservatives. Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) have been too silent and complacent on the war against the use of potassium bromated commonly used by bakers. Reports indicated that potassium bromated is carcinogenic.
Since the supported taking over of anti-mortem inspection of animals by the veterinarians, EHOs are not forthcoming in inspecting meat and meat products when such are display in markets. It is common nowadays to find uninspected meat and meat products being displayed for sale in markets. The gullible and innocent members of the public are paying dearly for this because many must have been infected with one food borne disease or the other especially bovine tuberculosis.
Wholesome food cannot come out from dirty surroundings. Many food preparing and eating premises are so filthy that they server as regular sources of food contamination. Many consumers could have picked such ailments like typhoid fever, dysenteries, gastroenteritis, cholera and other bowel diseases from food serving as vehicles of infection. This is a challenge that must be faced squarely.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Environmental Health is an integral part of PHC but it is an extensive field. It includes water and basic sanitation, housing, food and nutrition, vector control, control of communicable diseases, disinfection and disinfestations, and control of pollution. Some of these components have been highlighted in this paper but I will like to emphasize water and basic sanitation, because these are areas posing challenges to EHOs in the implementation of PHC.

WATER SANITATION
To say water is everywhere and that it is abundant for use is a tantalizing statement, quite misleading and erroneous. Water is a renewable resource and some 70% of the earth's surface is water but 97% of that is ocean. By volume, only 3% of all water on earth is fresh water and most of this is largely unavailable. About three-quarters of the fresh water is locked away in the form of Ice caps and glacier located in polar areas far removed from most human habitations only about 1% easily accessible as surface freshwater. This is primarily the water found in lakes, rivers, and the soil at underground levels shallow enough to be tapped at an affordable cost. Only this amount is regularly renewed by rain and snowfall in form of hydrological cycle.

THE COMING WATER CRISIS
Fresh water is emerging as one of the most critical natural resource issues facing humanity. World population is expanding rapidly. Yet there is no more fresh water on earth now than there was 2,000 years ago, when the population was less than 3% if its current size. Water is, literally the source of life on earth. The human body is 70% water. In growing number of places people are withdrawing water from rivers, lakes and underground serves faster than they can be recharged. Population growth alone will push an estimated 17 more countries with a projected population of 2.1 million into these water short categories within the next 25 years, already 31 countries mostly in Africa and the near East are facing water stress or water scarcity (Population Report Series M, Number 14)













Malin Falkenmanrk developed the concepts of water and water scarcity based on an index of per capita fresh water need. He estimated a minimum need of 100 litre per peron for household use and from 5-20 time a much for agricultural and industrial use.
Water dispute are now a major headache in our community. The available water sources are exposed to gross pollution from animal, domestic and industrial source. What can be more challenging to EHO this time around? The proliferation of packaged drinking water a.k.a. pure water is complicating the problem. Many of this packaged water are constant source of infection. We should create awareness that water is a precious natural resource that should be judiciously used & cared for to make it wholesome.
SANITATION
Sanitation of the environment forms a strong pillar of PHC. If there is 100% immunization cover age, and there is enough food and potable water, filthy or dirty environment will negate and render useless what could have been dividends. Hence, sanitation is basic and fundamental. Sanitation is a system made up of nature, society, process and device.






When discussing sanitation, and particularly in relation to the environment, we have to consider all these components. We cannot afford to neglect any one of them. Effective and efficient environmental sanitations alone is capable of achieving between 70-75% of a healthy population that the entire components of PHC could achieve. This is because many of the PHC problems are environmental based, but this could not be achieved on platter of gold it is an arduous and Herculean challenge to all Environmental Health Officers.
Nobody including layman is satisfied with the present arrangement of refuse disposal or is it disposal or dispersal of refuse? At best, it is refuse removal than refuse disposal.
Surely there is waste crisis, because the three basic principles of waste management are not being applied. For instance, there is the need to protect Health and Environment, minimize the Burden on future generations and conservation of non-removal resources. These three principles have been derived from the philosophy of sustainable development [fig 2].







Fig. 2: Sustainable Development and the Waste Management Principles


As long as these three basic principles are ignored in waste management, problems of wastes shall linger on and remain a stubborn challenge to Environmental Health Officers.
Presently, there is no clear cut policy on the method to be adopted in disposing refuse at local, state and federal government levels. In Oyo state for instance, what is being practiced now is nothing but sanitary landfill. The people in the local government where the municipal wastes are being tipped are experiencing all sorts of environmental hazards and risks. Their land and water are polluted and large quality of farm product destroyed by methane gas. No wonder, such things like ‘not in my backyard’, ‘NIMBY’, ‘not in my term of office’, ‘NIMTOO’, ‘locally unacceptable land use’, ‘lulu’, etc., are in vogue. It is a fact that land is no more available for waste disposal.

Wastes are very democratic-they are produced by each and every one of us, and so we should all contribute to the solution. Because of the populist nature of waste, its management is very much a social problem. It is not sufficient to understand the technical aspects, it is equally important to come grip with the social and political issues, and we must seek effective solution within practical cost limitations.
Environmental Health Officers are also facing the challenge of the nylon used to pack ‘pure water’. This nylon is a non-biodegradable substance and will not accept incineration either ,because it will emit poisonous gas-dioxins . the are other polymers and polyvinyl chloride[PVC]that will emit dioxins ad furan when they are incinerated .
The growth of advertising, along with electronic media, played an important role in evolution to society current level of over consumption. The end result was a dramatic increase in the amount of variety of consumer goods and hence, garbage to compound the problem, packing became dominant force in the way good were marketed ,distributed and sold. Today packaging represent more than one third of entire waste streams [Blumbers & Gottlieb, 1989).

The sustainable development concept is generally applied to the ‘front end’ of the industrial cycle the aim of ensuring that human can feed, clothe, house and entertain themselves. It is particularly relevant in preserving our diminishing resource but sustainable development must also be applied to the ‘back end’ of the consumer cycle, the management and disposal of waste. The situation as it is remains blinds pot.
It is apposite to mention that it will not be in the interest of a clean environment and the general masses to make EHOs subservient to another cadre, it is colloquial, and a manifestation of colonial vestige.
Primary Health Care recognizes professionalism, intesectoral collaboration and concerted approach inform of consortium. The present arrangement whereby in many Local Government Medical Doctors sit down in office to oversee waste management is an aberration and a waste of human resources. They are more needed in the clinics to improve the dwindling curative services. Environment Health Officers (EHOs) can work effectively and efficiently if they are allowed to do this in a conducive atmosphere.

HEALTH EDUCATION
Most of the challenges facing E.H.Os from the implementation of Primary Health Care can be overcome through Health Education approach but Health Education itself as a component of PHC remains a challenge to Environment Health Officers.
We have not tried enough to convince the masses that health is a valued asset that should be worked for, to attain. Our attitude to the masses is that of dealing with lay unintelligent people that should be planed for not planned with. Many of enabling factors in Health Education are violated with impunity resulting to mass failure of many of the policies, programmes and projects in P.H.C.
Communications skills are very important in Health Education and to be effective, health workers need to know the facts on how to prevent ill health and treat illness. This information must be communicated to the people to improve the health of their families.
Good communication is a two-way sharing of information. It involves finding out people’s view, listening carefully to what they say and understanding their situation i.e. includes being observant and appreciating the constraint people face.
Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) should be encouraged to develop behavioural technology adequate far the solution of environmental problems inherent in the implementation of PHC. The root of the word technology is a Greek term that means art, craft, or skill-in other words, knowing how to do something.
The term behavioural technology refers to the science, art, skill or craft of influencing socially important human behaviour. There is imbalance between physical and behaviour technology resulting in many health or environmental problems.
Most behaviour relevant to primary Health Care can be thought of interm of the three components of an operant paradigm described by B.F. Skinner (1953). This model is symbolized by the term SD-R-SR. In the model, a discriminative stimulus (SD) set the occasion for a response®. One could think of an SD as a signal that particular context. The response itself will act upon the environment that the world around us sometimes changes as a function of what we do. These changes are symbolized by SR which can be either positive or (SR+) or negative (SR).
The above analysis simply confirms what Health Education explains that “every behaviour is caused”. It is therefore imperative for EHOs to see laws as a last resort especially for stubborn and recalcitrant people.

Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) should intensify environmental education more than ever before to curb environmental degradation, destruction, distraction and disruption resulting in global warming, Ozone depletion, drought, desertification, the Greenhouse effect urban heat Island, EL-NINO-effects and other natural and anthropogenic hazards and risks. They are environmental challenges that have direct being with PHC. There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributed to human activities observed the international panel on climate change (IPCC). The 2001 IPCC report says Global surface temperature have increased between 0.4 and 0.80C since the late 19th century. The pertinent question is Global warming armful to health? It is predicted that global warming will expand the incidence and distribution of any serious medical disorders. Mosquito-borne disorders are projected to become increasingly prevalent since mosquitoes proliferate faster and bite more as the air become warmer. As the whole areas heat up, then mosquitoes could expand into formerly forbidden territories bringing illness with them. There are also the effects of flood and drought both of which can result in polluted water supplies:
As I mentioned earlier, environmental degradation and destruction have direct effect on P.H.C planning and implementation. Environmental Health Officers have major role to play in the implementation of PHC, if the implementation is going to be successful.



SUMMARY
This paper has tried to explain in simple language what is Primary Health Care ( PHC), its concepts, and the components and how they are related to Environment Health Officers (EHOs). It was emphasized in the paper, that EHOs are faced with so many challenges in the implementation of PHC and that Environmental Health Officers have crucial role to play in the successful implementation of PHC.

RECOMMENDATION
In order to meet the challenges of PHC by Environmental Health Officers, I am recommending the following:
1. That Environment Health Officers should be well abreast of the PHC concept, aims and objectives and components
2. Environmental Health Officers should realize that PHC requires concerted efforts and that no professional group has the prerogative to dominate PHC
3. Role or professional conflicts should be avoided
4. The (EHOs) should pursue more academic activities than hither to.
5. Environmental Health Officers should know that they are stakeholders and partners in progress in PHC implementation
6. Environmental Health Officers should be more articulate in generating revenue either at Local, State or Federal Government Level.

CONCLUSION
Generally, the tempo of Primary Health Care (PHC) is going down and is no more gathering momentum. Health for all by the year 2000 has been elusive and remain a mirage. The vestige remains the expended programme on immunization (EPI) all other components are almost in moribund. If we cannot achieve health for all by year 2000. PHC should be rejuvenated, resuscitated and brought back to life. It will go long way to improve the health of the masses.










REFERENCE
African Health Volume 22 No 6, Sep 2000 West African Journal of Nursing Vol. II No 2, November 2000.

Akinsola, H.A. (1993). A to Z of community Health and Social Medical and Nursing practice, 3am Ibadan. Communication.

Barrow, C.J. (1995): Developing the Environmental Problems and Management, Longman Scientific Technical, U.K

Cone, J.D. (1993). Environmental Problems/Behavioral Solutions, cahfornia.

Dialogue on Diaorrhea-AHRTAC issue No 58, Sept. – Nov. 1994

West African Journal of Nusing Vol. 10 No 2, Nov. 1999.

Simpson – Herbert, M and Wood, S, (1993). Sanitation promotion-WHO

Tammnagi H., (1999). The West crises (O.V.F New York).

Perman, R & MaGilvary, J. (1996): Natural Resumes & Environmental Economical, Longman, London/New York.

Wilson, G.A & Bryant, R.L, (1997): Environmental Management: New Directions for the Twenty-first Century UCL press London.

Wisher, B & Adams J. (2002). Environmental Health in Emergencies and Disasters ISDR, Hongkong.

NATURAL DISASTERS AND THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS

By Ibaniba Briggs-Iti
A paper delivered during the 41st Annual National Conference/Scientific Workshop f Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria [EHOAN] in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, March, 2008


Health care service delivery is a major factor in the sustenance and development of any nation.
States and the international community as a whole recognize this situation and see it as a challenge to harness all necessary available machinery within their jurisdictions to meet this need.

The United Nations for instance states as one o its objectives to co-operate in solving economic, social, cultural and humanitarian global problems. Consequently the Economic and Social Council which is one of the organs of the organization has established well over fifteen agencies and organizations as a functional response to meeting the needs of peoples of the world. Amongst these specialist organizations are WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNFDAC, FAO, UNEP, UNDLP etc that specifically cater for the health needs of the people.

Back home in Nigeria, the Federal Ministry of Health which is the highest body responsible for provision of health services set for itself laudable objectives and about “2 1 point” responsibility which generally encompass provision o material and human resources, coordinating and supervising health programme, participating in inter-sectoral and inter-ministerial collaborations, making of health laws and policies amongst others to meet the health needs of Nigerians.
The federal government has also established several agencies and parastatals to support and complement the functions of FMOH. Some of the agencies so established are NAFDAC, NPHCDA, NHIS, NPI, SON, PAFA, NACA, NDLEA.

Private voluntary organizations, international governmental and other non governmental organizations have also emerged to join the league of organizations established to promote health. USAID, CIDA, ICRC, NRCS, PPFN, Rotary International, WCC, Rochas Okorocha’s Foundation, Kanu Nwankwo Health Foundation are examples.

Health care service delivery generally includes provision of institutional, facilities and man-power resources.

In the aspect of provision of human resources or manpower, the health sector has a chain of professionals in its service. They include Medical Practitioners, Nurses, Pharmacist, Laboratory Scientists, Environmental Health Practitioners and Community Health Practitioners etc.

Each of these professional groups has their specific roles to play in the achievement of the holistic goal of the health sector.

The Environmental Health Officer (EFIO) or practitioner is one of the oldest personnel in the health sector. His emergence dates back to the colonial era and has faced dangers in course of passing through the various stages of metamorphosis to the present day professional that he is.

The modern EHO is educated with diversities of knowledge and skills, is controversial and the envy of other sister professional groups in the sector.
The Environmental Health Officers (Registered) Act of 2000 provides for the registration and practice of persons if the profession. With the governing council created by the law of 2000 and the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria (EHlOAN) which is set to co-ordinate and regulates the activities of members, the today 13110 is set on the path of expertise and relevance.
To be able to keep with the pace, EHOAN is organizing this programme tagged “BAYELSA 2008”, which is the 4 in the series, and the purpose is to sensitize and energize members of the profession. This year’s theme is “Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects”.

It should be noted that indeed there are challenges and prospects facing the professional group. How these challenges threaten the relevance of the group and how this would be tackled should be a concern for all as well as the ability of it to appropriate the prospects that stand before all.

It is believed that at the end of this conference and workshop, fresh achievable strategies would emerge to this effect.
Six papers have at been earmarked to be delivered:
• Water Sanitation as a Key Strategy Towards Achieving the Goals of International Year of Sanitation (IYS).
• Food Sanitation and its Implications on Environmental Health Practice in Nigeria.
• Natural Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners.
• Malaria Prevention Through Environmental Sanitation: A key Strategy for the Achievement of Millennium Development Goals.
• The Essentials o Effective Waste Management as A Tool For The Enhancement of International Year of Sanitation (IYS) in Nigeria.
• Implementation of National Environmental Sanitation Policy: The Journey so far.

This paper titled “National Disasters and the Role of Environmental Health Practitioners will examine the role of EHOS in the management of natural disasters and objectives are as follows:
a. To explain types Natural disasters
b. To identify organizations and agencies involved in managing natural disasters.
c. To explain the composition and functions of disaster response teams.
d. To analyze the role of the EHO in management of natural disasters in Nigeria.
By way justifying the need of this paper, it is worthy to note that it is on record that millions of people die as a result of natural disaster.

Tangiwai volcanic eruption disaster for example killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in 1985, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Parkistan.

Disaster incidences have been increasing astronomically over time, in the 1980’s there were only about 100 recorded hydrological disasters per year but the number has risen to over 300 a year since 2000 (source: World Disaster Report 2006).

It is therefore expedient that the management of such situations be tackled seriously. [ the El 10 can be relevant in this business of disaster management is one of the targets of this conference.


MEANING AND TYPES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural Disaster has been defined as the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake and landslide) which moves from potential into au active phase and as a result affects human activities causing financial, structural and human losses.
Human vulnerability element is incorporated into the definition in some cases stating thereby that disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability.

Natural Hazard is a situation which has the potential to create an event that has an effect oil people. Natural hazards result from natural processes in the environment and some natural hazards are related e.g earthquakes can result in tsunamis; drought can lead directly to famines and diseases.

The National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) Act (1999) defines natural or other disasters as including any disaster ansing from crisis, epidemic, drought, flood, earthquake, storm, train, roads, aircraft, oil spillage or other accident and mass deportation or repatriation of Nigerians from any other country.

Natural hazards may be classified into the Following:
• Geological
(Ava kinche, Earthquake, Lahars, Landslide, Mudliows, Sinkholes, Volcanic eruptions).
• Hydrological
(Flood, Limnic eruption, mealstrom, seiche tsunami).
• Climate
(Blizzard, drought, hailstorm, Heat wave, hurricanes, tropical cyclones, typhoons, Ice storm, tornado).
• Fire (wild fire)
• Health and disease
• Space
(Solar flare, impact event)

Types of Natural Disasters
• Avalanche
This occurs when large snow mass slides down a mountain slide into a slope. In an avalanche, lots of’ material or mixtures of different types fall or slide rapidly under the force of gravity.
• Earthquake
This occurs as a result of sudden release of’ stored energy that radiates seismic waves. At the earth’s surface, earthquake may manifest themselves by shaking or displacement of’ the ground. Many earthquakes occur each day but are not large enough to cause to- significant damage.
 The. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake which is the second largest earthquake recorded in history claimed about 229,000 people.
 2O0 Kashmir earthquake caused 79,000 lives in Pakistan
• Lahar
Lahar is a type of natural disaster closely related to a volcanic eruption and involves a large amount of material including mud, rock and ash sliding down the side of the volcano at a rapid pace. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds and kill thousands of people.
 Tangiwai disaster killed about 23,000 people in Armen Columbia in l98


• Landslides/Mud Flows
A Landslide is a disaster closely related to an avalanche but instead of occurring with snow, it occurs involving actual elements of the ground including rocks, trees, parts of houses and any thing else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by generally instability in the surrounding land.
Mudslidcs or mud flows are a special case of’ landslides in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards. This usually OCCWS after periods of heavy rain.
• Sink holes
It is a localized depression in the surface topography usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to collapse of buildings and other structures.
• Volcanic Eruption
A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power; the erupt ions comes in many forms. They range from daily small erupt R)I is which occur in places like Kilanea in Hawali or extremely infrequent super volcanic eruption.
According to Toba catastrophe theory, 70 — 75 year thousand years ago a super volcanic event in lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottle neck in human evolution.
Flood
Flooding occurs as a result of prolong rainfall including thunderstorms, rapid inciting of large amount of snow or rivers which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream or less frequently the bursting of man — made dams or levees.
 The Huange Ho River Flood in China in 1931 caused between 800,000 and 4,000,000 deaths.
 Yangtze River floods in China in 1978 rendered 14 million people covered much of the country for three weeks resulting in thousands of death leaving the country devastated for years afterwards.
 Tropical/storm Allison in Houston Texas in 2001 was devastating
 Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans in 2005 left most of the city under water.
Limnic Eruption
It is also referred to as a “Lake overturn”. A limnic eruption is a rare type of natural disaster in which CO2 suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, live stock and human such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising CO2 displaces waters. Scientist believes landslides, volcanic activity or explosions can trigger such an eruption.
 1984 limnic eruption in Lake Monou in Cameroon causing the death of 37 nearby resident
Tsunami
It is a wave of water caused by the displacement of a body of water. The world is Japanese meaning harbor and wave. Tsunami can be caused by undersea earthquakes.
Blizzard
It is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperature strong winds and heavy blowing snow.
Drought
It is an abnormally dry period when there is not enough water to support agriculture, Urban or environment. Water needs. Extended drought can result in deaths by starvation or diseases and can result in wildfires
 Between 1900-1941 China experienced several cases of droughts killing millions of people.
 Since 2006, Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria and Queens land have been under drought conditions for five to ten years.
Hailstorm
A Hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thousandstornm produces numerous hailstorms which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorm can be especially devastating to farm fields, running crops and damaging equipment.
• Hailstorm in Munich Germany on August 31, 1986 fell thousands of trees causing millions of dollars in insurance claims
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and Typhoon
Hurricane, Tropical Cyclones and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon. A cyclonic storm system forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off the ocean and becomes a storm. The carioles effect causes the storm to spin and a hurricane is declared when the spinning mass of storms attains a wind greater than 74 mph.
Hurricane is used for these phenomenon in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the India, Typhoon in the Western pacific.
• 1970 Bhola cyclone is recorded as the deadliest hurricane
• 2005 Hurricane Katrina which devasted the Gulf Coast of the U.S.
Tornado
A Tornado is a natural disaster resulting from thunderstorm. Tornados are violet rotating colomns of air which can blow at speeds between 50 and 300 mph and possibility higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along sequel lines or other large areas of thunderstorm development. Waster spouts are tornadoes occurring over tropical waters in high rain conditions.
Wild fire
It is an uncontrolled fire burning in wild land areas. Common causes include lightening and drought but wild fires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat to those in rural areas and also wild life.
Epidemics
An outbreak of a contractible disease that spreads at a rapid rate through human population.
A pandemic is an epidemic whose spread is global. There have been many epidemics throughout history.
• The 1918 Spanish Flu pandemic killings an estimated 50 million people worldwide
• The 1957-1958 Asian flu pandemic which killed an estimated one million people.
• The 1968-1968 Hong Kong Flu pandemic
• The 2002-2003 SARS pandemic
• The AID epidemic beginning in 1959
• Others are Malaria, Ebola bemorrhage fever, Cholera, Menningitis, Yellow Fever etc.
Impact Event
It is a natural disaster in which an extraterrestrial piece of rock or other material collides with the earth. The exact consequences of a direct earth impact would vary greatly with size of the colliding object, although in cases of medium to large impacts short term climate charge and a general failure of agriculture.
Famine
A social and economic crises that commonly accompanied by wide spread malnutrition starvation, epidemic disease and increase mortality although some famine occur by natural factors, it can and often is a result of economic or military policy that deprives people of food that they require to survive Famines often hit areas like sub-Sahara African and Asia.
Common natural disasters in Nigeria are flooding, erosion and drought. Although natural disasters are situations caused by natural factors some underlying factors have been identified by some experts as being responsible especially in the hydrological disasters. For instance unplanned urbanization in flood prone region increase the likelihood that their towns and villages will be affected by flash floods and coastal floods.
Large areas covered with cement prevents runoff water to get absorbed by the soil thereby causing floods.

ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Disaster management is a global issue. States and non governmental agencies efforts towards this direction are laudable. Programmes and activities have been earmarked to ensure disaster relief and reduce the consequential risks. Some of the organizations and bodies involved in management of natural disaster may be stated as follows
National Level
In Nigeria apart from the direct efforts of the Ministries of Health and Environment, there are established several other bodies which engage in disaster management. Some of them include:
National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA)
This is the foremost agency saddled with the responsibility of managing emergencies. The agency has a governing council made up of the following:
• The Vice President (Who is the chairman)
• The secretary to Government of the Federation
• Representatives from the Federal Ministries of Aviation, Foreign Affairs, Health, Internal Affairs, Transport, Water Resources, Works and Housing
• One representative each of the armed forces, the Nigerian Police, the Nigerian Red Cross societies, such voluntary organization as may be determined from time to time.
The functions of the agency are as follows:
• To formulate policy on all activities relating to disaster management in Nigeria and coordinate the plans and programme for efficient and effective response to disasters at national level.
• Co-ordinate and promote research activities relating to disaster management at the national level
• Monitor the state of preparedness of the organizations or agencies which may contribute to disaster management in Nigeria.
• Collate data from relevant agencies so as to enhance forecasting, planning and field operation of disaster management.
• Educate and inform the public on disaster prevention and control measures.
• Coordinate and facilitate the provision of necessary resources for search and rescue and other types of disaster curtailment activities in response to disasters distress calls.
• Coordinate the activities of all voluntary organizations engaged in emergency relief operation in any part of the federation.
• Receive financial and technical aid from international and nongovernmental management in Nigeria.
• Collect emergency relief supply from local and foreign sources and from international and non governmental agencies
• Liaise with state emergency management committees established under section and monitor where necessary the distribution of relief materials to disaster victims.
• Process relief assistance to such countries as may be determined from time to time.
• Liaise with the UN Disaster Reduction organization or such other international bodies for the reduction of natural and other disaster
• Prepare the annual budget for disaster management in Nigeria
• Perform such other functions which in the opinion of the agency are its objectives in the act.
The Nigerian Red Cross Society (NRSC)
NRCS is a non governmental organization directly linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
It is an independent humanitarian relief and development organization whose mission is to prevent and alleviate human suffering and is guided in its work by the seven fundamental principles of the movement tagged “The Vienna Proclamation of 1965”. The principles include; Humanity, Impartiality, Neutrality, Independence, Voluntary Service, United and Universally.
Activities of NRCS include:
• Recruitment and training of personnel for rendering of first aid, disaster relief and home nursing.
• Dissemination of information on the ICRC activities and international humanitarian law to target groups such as Red Cross volunteers, the military, the police, teachers and media.
• Family training activities
• Planning and implementing disaster preparedness and response
• Render community services in the areas of
 Health education
 Blood donation
 Primary Health care services
 First aid training and services
 Vacation programme
 Environment project such as construction of latrine.
INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
International agencies involved in natural disaster management include:
a. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
This organization is made up of the following:
 The international committee of the Red Cross
 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies
 National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies totaling about 160.
The functions of ICRC include
 Assist victims of disasters by providing medical care, setting up hospitals and rehabilitation centre.
 Provide appropriate aids as needed such as food, shelter, and clothing
 Run central tracing agency
 Promote assistance to war disabled
 Initiate and promote international humanitarian law ‘
 Carryout studies and research on humanitarian work
 Reunite families split by war
 Visit military prisoners and other detainees
 Arbitrate between warring parties in armed conflict
 Prohibit in human or degrading treatment e.g. hostage taking, torture, summary executions, deportations etc
 Active in conflict resolution, armed and non armed conflict and internal disturbances and tension.
b. Medicines Sans Frontier (MSF)
 Provides health and to victims of wars and natural disasters
c. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
 Fights poverty and diseases and advocates for environmental protection.
d. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHCR)
e. World Bank.
f. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP).
g. World Health Organization (WHO).
WHO is active in emergency and humanitarian actions.
Others include:
 USAID
 Medicine Sans Frontier (MSF) (provides health aid victims of war and natural disasters. Provides aids in chronic emergencies)
 World Food Programme (WFP)
 UNICEF
 CARE USA
 Catholic Relief Services (CRS)
 Food and agriculture organization (FAO) etc.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM.
Composition
A comprehensive emergency response team may be composed of the following:
a. Health Team
 Medical doctors
 Nurse
 Drug dispenser
 Health Educator
 Nutritionist
 Medical records officer
 Environmental Health Officer etc.
b. Environmental management team
 Environmental Health officer
 Civil and other Engineers.
c. Social welfare team
d. Information team
e. Fires control/service team
f. Representative of organizations
g. Security team (Civil Defence Corps/Police).
Functions of Emergency Management team
Functions of emergency response team may be summarized thus.
 Assessment of disaster zone and cases
 Evacuation of victims to temporary settlement
 Render Health services to the needy
 Provision of relief materials such as food, water, clothing drugs to victims
 Provision of Environmental and general sanitation
 Refer serious health cases to hospitals
 Provision of security and safety of victims
 Publicities/report emergency situations
 Seek financial aids for victims.
ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONERS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
It is difficult to stand before professionals like you and give instructions on what should be done during emergencies. However a reminder of what is normally done is an easier task to accomplish.
It is therefore intended in this part of the paper to highlight what is already known by all, and this will be done with a persuasive note to all the endeavour to take actions in order to maintain the image brushing ad relevance that the professional group requires at this time.
The role of the Environmental Health Officer in disaster management is to carry out environment process, most particularly to note are:
• The Evacuation stage
• The settlement stage
• The Treatment stage
• The clean up stage
• The provision of supplies stage.
In each of these stage, the EHO is expected to:
• Make observations/carryout inspections
• Detect nuisances
• Abate the nuisances
• Prevent the reoccurrence of nuisances.
The specific environmental health actions to be taken by the EHO are as follows:
• Inspect and determine the suitability of means of transportation.
• Ensure that means are not overcrowded or pose health hazards
• Ensure sanitary waste disposal for victims in transit
• Give health education to victims.
Settlement Stage
• Carryout site/facility inspection before arrival of victims
• Ensure provision of waste disposal facilities
• Ensure adequate waster/electricity supply
• Ensure provision for storage and preservation of food
• Give health education to victims
• Carryout disinfections and disinfestations.
Treatment stage
• Ensure that hospital/medical wastes are sanitarily disposed off
• Carryout disinfection of materials.
Clean up stage
• Zone area for proper cleaning
• Determine appropriate cleanup methods
• Supervise clean up exercise
• Ensure sanitary disposal of waste generated
• Coordinate personnel to be used for the exercise
• Ensure that dead bodies are appropriately disposed.

Provision of Supplies Stage
• Ensure safety of supplies
• Ensure storage and preservation of supplies
• Ensure fair distribution of supplies.
The EHO is expected to play his role in the management of disasters and his ability to take quick and relevant actions in what makes the difference.

CONCLUSION
Quick response to emergency situations save life and reduce mobility rates of victims. It is important therefore that the EHO understands the emergency situation and identify areas that pertain to him and take appropriate actions. In this way he becomes relevance and contributes his best whenever and wherever the call comes.