PRIVASTISATION OF WASTE DISPOSAL: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS

BY Abiodun Peter Bamigboye [now late], presented at the Environmental Health Officers Association of Nigeria annual scientific conference in Lagos, 2003

1.0     Introduction

          The failure of succeeding governments at various levels of Nigeria to effectively manage Municipal solid wastes (MSW) has remained a national embarrassment and a cause of concern. Waste management deficiencies remain one of the major health and development problems in the country. It is also a major cause of mortality especially of vulnerable population groups in the country as it exposes people to disease causing organisms and various pollutants from water and the physical environment. A strong association has long been established between the spread of communicable diseases and poor refuse management system. A look at most of the urban towns and villages in the country pictured a grossly deficient system of waste collection management and disposal-a sharp departure from what obtains in most developed countries of the world. The problem has thus become a complex one in Nigeria which requires urgent attention at all levels of policy initiation and implementation. The lack of capacity on the part of government and/or its agency has largely been responsible for this ugly situation.

In recent times, there has been lots of speculation as regards the intention of government to privatize waste management in Nigeria. Experts and professionals have continue to wonder on the viability of the idea while would be contractors have started their lobby to get involved in the business of waste management although without having much knowledge of its workability. It must be said at this juncture that Private Sector Participation (PSP) in waste management is not stately that should be implemented in haste. There is need for extensive knowledge and capacity building of the part of governments, professionals and the operators so that the benefits would be realizable. The choice of this topic and its target audience is therefore considered timely for addressing a pressing problem confronting our nation.

2.0     WASTES AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste has been defined as a resource in the wrong place (Adewumi, 2001). Waste refer to lack of use or value or useless remains. It is a by-product of human activities. Solid waste encompasses diverse nature and constituents. It is generally classified as household, market or commercial, industrial, medical, construction, etc. All these could either be wet or dry in nature. It has therefore being advocated that the best way to deal with wastes is to restore value to it (Adewumi, 2001) to the point at which it ceases to be a waste. The lack of value in many cases can be related to the mixed and in many cases unknown composition of wastes which also compound management problems. The provision of municipal solid waste services is a costly and vexing problem for local authorities everywhere.

Solid waste management involves distinct operations: storage, collection, transfer and transportation, resource recovery, recycling and final disposal. Effective management of waste therefore aims at ensuring that waste does not in any way constitute danger to health and safety or man and the environment at every stage of its handling. Waste management from time immemorial has become an essential part of Public Health service management which is expected to benefits all residents of the community. The service is no-exclusive (i.e. benefiting all sections of the society), and non-rivaled, meaning that any resident can enjoy the service without diminishing the benefits of others (Dillinger, 1988). As a result of these characteristics, Solid Waste Management (SWM) thus become a public good to which local metropolitan government is typically responsible. Constitutionally, responsibility for the disposal of waste in Nigeria rests on the Local governments. It is however clear that Local Government Areas (LGAs) presently seem to be incapable of handling the situation either due to:

1. Lack of expertise or resources
2. Poor planning
3. Lack of proper understanding of the various issues involved in the handling and management of municipal.

The need for other levels to play key role thus become inevitable. Various approaches have been explored in other countries to address the problems presented by poor waste management. One of the which is allowing private firms to be involved on all or selected aspects of waste management. Many countries have moved towards privatization in the last decade but only few have done it successfully.

2.1.1  Problems of SWM in Nigeria

The problems of SWM in Nigeria present a situation that is difficult in a way to clearly understand the complexes. This is because so many factors compound the problem from place to place. The factors include organizational, finance, climatic and ecological. Generally speaking, the followings are features of the SWM services in most places in Nigeria.

1. d.    Low Service Coverage: In some places the public financed system covers only a little section of the population and as such other places especially the rural areas have no organized form of waste disposal
2. e.      Substantial inefficiencies: This is most cases in characterized by high costs but low quality services and also labor intensive but low labor productivity giving  rise to mountains of refuse in many places
3. f.      Insufficient resources in which there is little or no cost recovery and a near total dependence on general revenues or transfers. Thus whenever money fail to come from the central sources no service is provided.
4. g.     Widespread uncontrolled dumping especially in market places of major towns and entirely in the rural areas.
5. Unorganized collection methods
6. i.       Inconsistent policy characterized by lack of commitment
7. j.       Problem posed by poor urban planning and poor road infrastructure complicating problems of collecting and transporting wastes to disposal sites
8. k.    Inadequate data on per capital waste generation making planning cumbersome and unrealistic
9. l.       Problem of waste segregation/sorting which increases the proportion that goes final disposal.

3.0     PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION IN SWM

          One proven ways of obtaining efficiency gains in solid waste management is through the involvement of the private sector-that is when key success factors of competition, transparency and accountability are present (Cointreau-Levine, 1994, Cointreau-Levine et al, 2000). As a matter of fact there is a growing interest in the participation of private companies in solid waste management. Most times this is driven from failures of municipal systems to provide adequate services, and some time by pressure from national governments and international agencies. It is a system that has recorded success in the US, Canada, Hong Kong, Morocco, Ecuador, Ghana and other places (Cointreau-Levine et al, 2000) and its being experimented in various places in Nigeria including, Lagos, Ibadan, Akure, Onitsha, and a few other places (Ogunwolere, 2000).

PSP in itself is not panacea but a possible opportunity in solid waste management. There are important questions which needs to be answered and these are: whether and how to involve the private sector in the provisions of municipal solid waste services. It should be looked at as a strategic management option where existing management options for services delivery are either too costly or inadequate. It should be seen as a means of enhancing efficiency thus lowering cost and mobilizing private investment thereby expanding the resources available for urban infrastructure. PSP like other business require planning and direction both in the long and short term otherwise it is bound to fail.

3.1.    Approaches to PSP in Nigeria

3.1.1  Contracting

Contracting has become a viable means of securing as long as it is possible to adequately described outputs anticipated from the contract. Of all the methods opened to PSP in waste management, contracting waste collection to private firms offers the greatest opportunity for effective management. It theoretically offers the opportunity for a less costly service than the public service which makes it well suited for discrete activities within the solid waste system. This opportunity is bet harnessed through solid waste collection.

An important issue in this regards is the absence of barriers to entry. This service involves low economies of scale, technological simplicity and moderate investment costs (Ogunwalere, 2000). This is feasible for local firms with modest financial resources to enter into the business. Findings from the Latin America showed that most of the firms were small-to-medium sized, indicating that there were no barriers to entry, (Bartone et al, 1991). Similar situation also exist in Korea. In most places in Nigeria, Particularly in Lagos, less than 10% of the contractors has 1 or 2 collection vehicles as most of them depend on government vehicles.

Competition play an important role in getting low cost solid waste service from private collectors. In 1984 after many years of private collection system, the San Jone city in California re-examined the prices they were paying and dedicated that they might lower their waste management costs by activity increasing competition. They thus focused on helping a competitive waste management firm develop a new landfill. This approach waste found to have resulted in saving lot of contract costs to the tune of between US$25-$31 million in five years (Leite, 1991).

Some form of contracting involve a mix of public and private service. This approach was implemented in Bangkok where competition between private and public contractors led to the streamlining of the roles of the public service by 30% (Cointraneau, 1992). In Minneapolis where the approach experienced initial high cost than those of the private contractors, the public costs dropped towards the level of private contractors after five years (Bartone, 1999). This approach has the natural tendency to make both types of providers more accountable while it motivates the public service to be more efficient and on the part of the contractors it makes them realize that the city cannot be held hostage of cartels, monopoliers or collusion. This kind of approach is not yet organized to a level where the gains of competition could be maximized in Nigeria. However some form of collaboration exists between the private and the public service providers. The Lagos State Waste Disposal Board in 1985 (now Lagos State Waste Management Authority-LAWMA, divided the city of Lagos into zones and awarded contracts of refuse collection to selected private contractors to collect industrial and commercial wastes from large generators. 60% of user charges being collected by LAWMA was paid to the contractors while 40% was retained to cover their own cost of administration, billing and disposal in this form of contracting that was introduced at that time (Ogunwalere 2000).

3.1.2  Franchise

This is the method in which local government that is in charge of waste collection and disposal or any other agency so charged with the responsibility givers exclusive right to a qualified private firm for the responsibility to provide service to customers within a zone. In return for the right, the private firm pays a license to the government. The firm subsequently charges her customers appropriate fees to cover the cost of the service. Ceiling fixed by the government agency through ordinance may regulate the fees charged monitoring of the performance of the private firm having franchise agreement with government rests on the government agency. It is also their responsibility to regulate user charges.

An important advantage of franchise over contracting for government is that the private firm bears the cost of billing and collection of user charges. However it has the disadvantage of not usually resulting into the same low cost as contracting because of the cost of billing due to non-payment and late-payment (Cointraneau, 1992). However, there is need to make for a guaranteed lower cost than the public service. In doing this it is important to have a well defined contract performance measures, initiate enforceable contract sanctions, arrange for vigilant contract monitoring and cost accountability. There is also the need for the government agency to arrange for a means of receiving and managing complaints from residents about solid waste service.

Franchise has become a popular method of PSP in most places in Nigeria. It is being implemented in Ibadan, Lagos, Onitsha, Kano among others. Franchise if properly managed has the potential to enhance better efficiency and control. One major compliant from residents of Ibadan is that they were not given free choice to select their designated company and indeed some of the companies turnout not to be reliable (Cointraeau, 1992).

3.1.3  Informal Sector Waste Collection

In many developing countries, the informal sector provides waste collection services to low-income neighbourhood. While the formal sector is based on basic activities, the informal sector consists of non-basic services. This is common to see wastes being carried in carts being pulled by donkeys or carts being pushed by people. A major feature of this practice is the indiscriminate dumping of refuse by these cart pushers resulting from their lack of necessary equipments to haul wastes to official landfills. This practice has been reported to be predominant in Colombia where more than 600 clandestine dumps exist which were created by the informal sector using mainly donkeys (Coaintraeau 1989). The need to organize these collectors into a cooperative and developing a franchise arrangement whereby the rights and responsibilities of the informal sector collectors are defined has been suggested (Cointraeu, 1989). Community participation could be a very necessary tools in this wise in which the people are involved in the section of such informal refuse collectors in their neighborhood and negotiate the means of disposing the refuse with them. A high level of community organization would be a useful tool in achieving this. In doing this, a local leader may be put in charge of collecting fees from residents to fully cover costs of and also initiate actions to keep the neighborhood system self-sustaining.

3.1.4  Micro-Enterprise

Apart from this direct involvement of the sector in waste management, another form of PSP is through the incorporation of micro-enterprises and informal waste recycling cooperatives in the municipal solid waste management system. Research has shown that the promotion of micro-enterprises has proven to be an effective way of extending services to poor urban communities (Arroyo et al, 1999). The promotion and development of recycling cooperatives also provides a way of upgrading the living and work standard of informal waste pickers, resulting higher incomes for them and greater self esteem (Haan et al, 1998). Formalising the activities of scavengers would help in better organization of their services.

3.1.5  Concession

This is an arrangement under which the private sector finances and owns solid waste management facilities. This ownership is usually for a period of time sufficient to depreciate investments and provide a reasonable return to the investors. Concession agreement could specify performance standard, methods of judging performance, penalties for delay or non-performance, risk assignment, insurance requirements, dispute resolution and standard for workers’ safety and health environmental protection.

Concession components include building, owning, operating and sometimes transferring of facilities through long-term contractual agreements. Some components that are commonly referred to are:

1. Built, Own, Operate and Transfer (BOOT): This involves the building, owning, operating and after a specified period the transfer of the infrastructures. It provides a means of having the private sector financed facilities whose ownership will eventually be transferred to government.
2. Built, Own and Operate (BOO): This involves building, owning and operating waste management through contracting by a private firm. Such facilities can provide solid waste services such as transfer, disposal or resource recovery. BOO is widely used in many developed countries like the USA, Germany and Canada (Cointraneau, 1989).

3.1.6  Private Subscription

This involves each household and commercial establishment hiring private collection firms and paying the user fee charged by the firm. This brings in opportunity for open competition. This methods has been known to have some disadvantages including:

1. Higher costs than those incurred by government contracting with private firms
2. Usually more costly than the public service.

Collusion has always being an issue when open competition is practiced. Association of private refuse collectors exist in a number of cities in Nigeria especially Lagos, Ibadan, Akure and other places.

4.0     KEY ISSUES

4.1.1  Factors Influencing Private Sector Participation in Solid Waste Disposal

Privatizing solid waste management in developing countries requires elaborative consideration of all the issues involved and arriving at realistic decision as to whether to privatize a specific aspect or portion or the entire aspect of the service. In deciding whether to have PSP, many factors needs to be analyzed such as cost recovery, efficiency, public accountability, management, finance, economies of scale, legislation, institution and cost (Cointraneau, 1994). For each situation therefore, governments needs to weigh the economic risks associated with the political manipulation including payment, environmental regulations, tariff regulation, inflation and other associated factors. Cost factors in particular should be analyzed separately for the different components of solid waste service collection, cleansing, disposal and transfer.

However, some factors are worth considering in making decision to involve private sector in the service. These include:

1. Efficiency: The need to know the political realities constraining government from providing efficient service is required. These realisties include, cost accountability, labour tenure, government wage scales, labour practices, personnel benefits, work arrangement, bureaucratic procurement procedures and hiring and firing procedures. Also important is the need to find answers to questions like.
2. Where these constraints could be removed
3. Where same constraints could characterized the involvement of the private sector
4. If there are economies of scale.
5. Capability: Certain questions need to be addressed as regards to capability. These are:
6. Does the government recognize that expertise is essential for competent and low-cost solid waste management?
7. What are the differences between government and the private sector in technical and financial resources required to build or buy, operate and maintain waste management facilities
8. Can performance be effectively monitored?
9. Costs: The cost of running the public service must be compared vis a vis the cost of maintaining PSP. There must exist an accounting information to determine whether PSP would offer solid waste services delivery at a lower cost. The need to have a strategic planning and good feasibility study as relates to efficiency of technology and equipments is very important.
10. Accountability: There is need to assess whether PSP will disportionately benefit an elite, wealthy class with control over private capital or whether market opportunities will be available to small and middle sized business which would eventually lead to some redistribution of income and power

aa. Competition: PSP as matter of necessity must allows for healthy competition among firms on the hand and between firms and government on the other hand. Government policy on PSP must be made in such a way to facilitate this and appropriate provisions made to ensure that at all time the required atmosphere is created to make it work.

1. Risk: There must be a regulatory framework to protect the private sector against risks due to environmental damage, currency adjustments and inflation, political changes etc, so that the prices of services are not unduly burdened with hidden costs for risk protection. Signing contract for a minimum length of time to allow for full investment depreciation and economic of scale would reduce risk.

4.1.2  Expectations from the Private Sectors (as part of their sector participation process)

1. Technological assessment studies
2. Public consultations
3. Environmental Impact Assessment
4. Design facilities and acquire permits.
5. Activities Expected from Government

4.1.3  Activities Expected from Government

1. Identification of the activities to be privatized and the development of a private sector policy strategy
2. Preparation of the privatization (including detailed cost analysis and potential restructuring) plan
3. An appraisal phase which basically consist of preparing the transaction itself
4. Implementation of the privatization policy
5. Maintaining a balance between private and public sectors to secure contestability (e.g. monitoring public provision over some waste collection zones).
6. Minimizing labour redundancy, health and safety risks
7. Monitoring performance based on well specified contracts
8. Considering willingness to pay in determining user charges
9. Defining equitable collection zones in order to minimize collusion and procurement irregularities
10. Defining clear contractual clauses and well-advertised, transparent, equitable and scheduled procurement
11. Ensuring that government has available financial means to comply with its constraining and to establish cost-recovery systems
12. Developing the capacity of public sector to regulate and monitor private service providers
13. Providing governmental support by changing national laws and policies and by providing guidance and setting norms.

4.1.3  General Issues

1. Extent of privatization-is government backing out?
2. How much planning has been made prior to privatization
3. How much waste is generated per capita, within different socio-economic group
4. Facilities available for disposal-location, capacity, efficiency etc
5. Making collection efficient-transportation, storage, transfer station etc
6. Capacity building (personnel for monitoring) in terms of training, retraining, research etc
7. Modifying the role or state environmental agencies
8. Recycling-strategies to minimize waste available for disposal
9. The software components-Health education, information, community organization, sorting at source etc.

5.0     PROSPECTS

Although PSP in solid waste management has failed in a number of few places, it has continued to gain prominence in many other places with recorded success. (STAT 2002). The private sector:

• Improves efficiency and lower costs by intruding commercial principles of:

-         Limited and well focused performance objectives

-         Financial and management autonomy

-         Hard budget constraint

-         Clear accountability to consumers and providers of capital.

• Has better financial and management autonomy, a hard budget constraints and clear accountability to both customers and providers of capital. This would help  in providing better equipment and services
• Provide new ideas, technologies and skills. The activities of scavengers has recently introduced into the Nigeria industrial sector re-cycliable materials that is already solving problem of supply of original raw materials.
• Mobiles needed investment funds especially for short-lived collection vehicles
• Job creation for various categories of staff
• Environmental beauty and protection
• Enhancement in health status and community hygiene

All which is expected to lead to lower cost and tariffs.

Ample evidence abounds from around the world to support these claims. Findings from the United State, Canada and the UK shows that in about 2000 cities surveyed, the services provided by public monopolies typically cost between 25-4% more than competitively contracted services (Bartone, 1999).

6.0     Conclusion

The problems of solid waste management in Nigeria demand a radical approach to finding effective solutions to address the various problems of confronting the sector. It is also very clear that with the abundant human and material resources and a vast enterprising market, PSP in solid waste management has a great potential in Nigeria. It cannot be out of place for government in Nigeria to explore the opportunity offered by a wide range of resources and to work out strategies to make PSP in waste management workable in Nigeria. In doing this there would be the need for a waste management sector reforms and a commitment on the part of governments to really address waste management problems. Effective planning is fundamental to its success and a commitment (both political and administrative) to implement plan if very central to PSP in solid waste disposal.

Public health not doctors' preserve

By Sani Garba Mohammed

Public health is a term that is eliciting concern from health professionals; for, as the name imply, it deals with the issues pertaining health be it preventive, curative, promotive or rehabilitative.

In Nigeria, the rivalry between health professionals is making the term to lose relevance as to what public health stand. It reaches a stage where by one profession corner the title and determines what goes in and out, leaving large chunk of other health professional onlookers.
This comment will look at what is public health, whether or not one profession should be alpha and omega, and the need of collaborative approach towards making public health better.

Permit me to quote WHO [1952] definition of public health which is “the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation of the environment, the control of communicable infections, the education of the individual in personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing services for early diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease, and the development of social machinery to ensure for every individual a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health, so organizing these benefits as to enable every citizen to release his birthright of health and longevity”.

Based on this, we can deduce that public health consist of environmental health services [it has 18 components], medical, nursing, laboratory, other health services, including other sectors relevant to health like agriculture, science and technology, power, communication, engineering, etc., that address the physical, mental and environmental health concerns of communities, and disease prevention technologies interventions designed to improve and enhance quality of life.
Considering the all-encompassing scope of public health, no any profession, be it medical, nursing, chemist, etc., can lay claim to be its only promoter, as it is obtainable in Nigeria where the mere mention of ‘public health’, direction will look at doctors only, not all health workers.

Doctors have now appropriates public health practice as their own only, and determine how it should be run, from federal ministry level down to local government level; and any attempt to do the right thing by the right professionals in what they have interest will not see the light of the day.

Nowadays it has become a norm that every minister of health is a doctor, the same with majority of states, also many position are now reserved for doctors only like headship of hospitals, national primary health care development agency, etc., which any health practitioner like pharmacist, medical scientist, environmental health officer, nurse can hold with the necessary managerial skills. These, give rise to a situation that very health policies, tend to be one-sided, from the prism of medical practice, with the exception of other sides which are equally important.

For instance, the effort to prevent/and or reduce the endemicity of malaria could not succeed, because the emphasis is based on curative approach that hinge on only provision of insecticide treated nets, provision of drugs, to the detriment of more effective control of environmental health management of our surroundings, which harbor the vector that causes it, because money is involved from donors.

Now doctors are penetrating in to many professions and forcing their thoughts on how to do or not do this and that; they are into radiography, laboratory science, pharmacy etc., but still want to usurp the role of those who start from degree level.
”Take a look at a scheme of service, from 2001” said Godwill Okara “ addressed to the minister for health, telling him of eleven schemes of service for professionals in the health sector, to be implemented. The then minister caused this letter to be circulated to all chief executives of hospitals for immediate implementation. Up till now, this scheme of service has not been implemented because doctors feel they are the ones to [lead]”, daily trust 3rd July, 2012.
He also added “There are laws: do your own, let me do my own. When people think that they are above the laws of the land, it is an open invitation to anarchy. And the kind of situation we see in the health sector, there could be no greater anarchy than it. Despite the immense human and material resources in Nigeria, the Nigerian health service is being rated 51 out of 53 in Africa. It’s a shame. Instead of facing these facts, they gang up, become partisan and want to protect the interest of their colleagues against all others”

The other area where other health professionals are being discriminated is their non-admission by many universities for Masters in Public health, which it seems is exclusive reserve of medical doctors; with the exception of few universities in the south-like federal university of technology, Owerri, University of Calabar, University of Port Hacourt, University of Uyo-all northern universities reject any non-doctor health practitioner from the programme, even if s/he has first class in his degree.

National Health Bill further creates another huge gap which if allows to be signed without the input of other health professionals, will do more harm than good, and public health services will suffer. “The new bill” according to Nigerian Health Watch “states that the "Executive Chairmanship of the proposed National Tertiary Hospitals Commission must be a Medical Director of the status of a Professor with a minimum of ten years working experience in a Teaching Hospital"

“This clause that limits the Executive Chairmanship to medical doctors in perpetuity has all the other health professions up in arms. Doctors argue that it is their traditional (read tribal) role to lead a medical team. The other health professions argue that they (their tribe) must also have a go at leading the commission.

“It is our contention at NHW, that this clause in the health bill is flawed, as it does not protect the best interests of Nigerians, and has placed tribal interests as belonging to a profession (a tribe of doctors), reaching an academic height (a tribe of professors) and having worked in teaching hospital (a tribe of public sector workers) - none of which ultimately guarantees a good leader and manager which the National Tertiary Hospitals Commission needs to fulfill its promise to the Nigerian people”.

I am not bringing this to castigate or blackmail my fellow practitioners, as I have many friend doctors, mentors, but just to highlight the issue at hand at its pertain the practice of public health, which are directly or indirectly affecting it delivery to the target beneficiaries, for no any profession is an island unto itself, as doctors needs pharmacist, radiographer, laboratory scientist, so also pharmacist need chemist, nurse, and other health practitioners. As a sanitarian [aka environmental health officers], I need police, lawyer, engineer, laboratory scientist, etc., to discharge my work accordingly, as such, public health services needs all of us to join hand and deliver, for, we own it up together.

So, for public health practice to prosper there should be no enmity, or feeling superiority of one over the other, we are all equal as all have undergone training of not less than 5 years. Let us join hands together if we are ever serious. Public health belongs to us not one of us. It is better late than never.

Sani Garba Mohammed, is of department of public health technology, federal university of technology, Owerri.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

A LECTURE DELIVERED ON THEMATIC MODULE ON PPP IN VECTOR AND PEST MANAGEMENTFOR REGISTERED ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS IN NIGERIA AT FILBON MOTEL, CHIME AVENUE, NEW HEAVEN, ENUGU, ENUGU STATE ON 7TH SEPTEMBER, 2012

BY
SAN. OLALEKAN ISHOLA JP (NIMS)

INTRODUCTION
Integrated pest management (IPM) this is a pest management/control strategy which utilize biological and ecological knowledge, pest monitoring, various material and techniques, together with natural pest population regulatory factors for the management of pest.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programmes use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pest and their interactions with the environment.

The IPM approach can be applied to both agricultural and non agricultural settings such as the home, garden and workplace. IPM takes advantages of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production from natural sources, as opposed to synthetic chemicals IPM is a board based ecological approach to structural and agricultural pest control that integrated pesticides / herbicides into a management system incorporating a range of practices for economic control of a pest in IPM one attempt to prevent infestation to observe patterns of infestation when they occur and to interferes (without poisons) when one deems necessary. IPM is the intelligent selection and use of pest control actions that will ensure favourable economic, ecological and sociological consequences.

IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pest and was expanded to include tactics other than just chemical and biological controls. Artificial controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control but these now had to be compatible with control tactics for all classed of pest. Other tactics such as hest-plants resistance and cultural manipulations, became post of the IPM arsenal.IPM added the multidisciplinary element, involving entomologists’ plant pathologist, wood scientists and environmentalists.
In 1972 in United States of America IPM was formulated into National Policy by, President Richard Nixon who directed federal Agencies to take steps to advance the concept and application of IPM in all relevant sectors.
In 1979, president primary carters established an integrity IPM co-coordinating committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices.


IPM COMPONENTS
I.P.M is designed around (4) four essential components while in some cases around (6) six basic components.
1. Acceptable pests level, this an understanding of the factors that regulate pest number or encourage their presence e.g. presence of breeding sites, filthy environment, poor waste disposal, indiscriminate piling up of unused material, favourable climate conditions etc.

2. MONITORING: Since insects are cold blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment. This is necessary to decide whether to apply control measures. It is also important in determine seasonal build up and dispersal, evaluating control or comparing different control measures.
Monitoring can be done by using:
a. Feeding activities
b. Visual observation on their number
c. Dropping
d. Disease development e.g. mosquito
e. Use of attractants

3. PREVENTIVE CULTURAL PRACTICES: Sanitation (Removal of disease causing agents on the source of growth/breeding sites). This cultural technique will prevent the spread of diseases; caused by pests.

4. MECHANICAL CONTROL: Should a pest reached an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options consider. They include simple hand picking erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming and tillage to distrust breeding.

5. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: This is the use of living organisms to reduce pest populations. It is based on the knowledge that all living organisms have natural enemies unlike with agricultural pest, e.g. introduction of Tilapia and Gamdusia species used against mosquito larvae.

6. RESPONSIBLE PESTICIDES USE / CHEMICAL CONTROL: This is the application or use of natural or synthetic chemicals called pesticides to kill pests. The straight interpretation of pesticides is pest killers which is the original concept. In recent years many discoveries have been made of substances that influence insect behavious, for examples, chemicals which attract, repel car/or stenle pests without killing them. New concept of chemicals control is the judicious application or use of natural or synthetic chemicals that cause directly the death repulsion, attraction, deterrence, or in other ways influence pests for control purposes e.g. rodenticides inspecticides, fungicides e.t.c. examples of recent additions are the pyrehtroids and insect growth resulations (IGR) e.g Dimulan and Hydropene.

Constraints of IPM COMPONENTS
1. In some rural places, construction of houses may have to be altered so as to be able to screen at sites of our exchange.
2. Cost of chemicals which may not be affordable to some extent.
3. Sale of adulterated/fake chemicals.
4. Wrong application of selected chemicals.
5. Lack of modern techniques by spray men.
6. Inadequate bed nets.
7. Insects are still free to bite since bed nets are used mainly at night.
8. Heat may build up with in the net, making sleeping not enjoyable
Reasons for failure of the programme
1. Over reliance on a single approach to pest control especially pesticides, this has led to various ecological health and environmental problems.

2. Epidemiology of some diseases have been over-simplified for example may control measures that have worked in other areas are sometimes extrapolated to other areas and situations without taking into consideration the fact that the ecology of disease transmission is complex and could vary from place to place.

3. Many control programmes did not evolve within the context of occupational and social considerations of the target community.

4. Diseases transmitted are considered very important while the vectors are unimportant.
5. Emphasis is usually place on eradication of the pest species all costs.

SOLUTIONS
IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals and potentially lower overall costs of pesticide application materials labour.
1. Public education programmes are vital to any vector control programme. It should be carefully planned and culturally sensitive and may be accompanied with incentives not threats. This enlightenment programme must be rich, and incentives may be financial, economic, informational, behavioural, regulatory and evaluation.
2. Effective maintenance of central measures, appropriate institutional arrangement must exist, spare parts, pesticides and other materials must be available all the time and monitoring programme should be supported.
3. Teams within disease control agency or vector control agency must be interdisciplinary. Anthropologist/sociologist, entomologists, medical personnel and environmentalist can learn together how to increase their contribution to vector management especially with the choice of appropriate management tactics.
4. Educational officers must be trained and re-trained to introduce them to current trends in vector management. Vector management is a dynamic exercise, every year new methods and technologies are developed for dealing with specific vectors.
5. Government must provide adequate funding for public education and other aspects of vector management programmes.



CONCLUSION
Implementing the IPM programme will completely reduce the chance of accidental exposure of pesticides to children, adult and the popular. This proactive, can control pests better in the long term than just pesticides alone. “Overtime” an IPM programme can cost less than conventional pest management practices by reducing dependence on pesticides.

HEALTH SAFETY IN PEST MANAGEMENT

HEBY SANITARIAN M.A. SOMOYE
A PAPER PRESENTED AT THEMATIC TRAINING ON PEST MANAGEMENT CONTROL HELD AT FILBON HOTEL, UPPER CHIME AVENUE ENUGU ON 6TH SEPTEMBER, 2012.

Several causes of overt poisoning by pesticides occur in workers applying these agents of disinfestation. Therefore, the importance of safe handling of insecticides cannot be over emphasized.

It must also be a way of life for spray men and persons applying insecticidal dusts, whether the materials used are highly toxic, moderate, or slightly toxic to human. Absence of accurate data in the country disenables to get the number of death recorded from accidental ingestion of solid and liquid toxic substances. We have observed a case whereby a spray man collapsed and die ignorantly for unknowingly habouring a particle of zinc phosphide under the finger nail which was not properly washed before going to observe prayers. He died putting water into his mouth containing the agent.

Respiratory exposure is most frequent among persons that handle dusts, which are not readily absorbed through the skin. Dermal exposure becomes much more hazardous when sprays are applied. The solvents such as organophosphorus used with many spray destroy the protective oily barrier of the skin and allow more intimate contact with the chemical toxicant.
Poisoning by ingestion is most critical among children under five years of age when pesticides are put especially in mineral bottles and kept in accessible places, such as the kitchen pantry, or sink cabinet.

Pest control services must be handled by a professional, who have been trained and licensed to handle such onerous task. A basic principle in choosing an insecticide for public health operations is to select a product that is moderately or slightly toxic to humans, and to observe meticulously the operational precautions that would be required with a more toxic material.

HOW DO ACCIDENTAL PESTICIDE POISONING OCCUR?

1. By Mouth –
- Dusts and sprays entering mouth during applications
- Drinking pesticides from unlabelled or contaminated container
- Using the mouth to start siphonage of liquid concentrates
- Eating contaminated food
- Transfer of chemical to mouth from contaminated cuffs or hands.
- Drinking from contaminated beverage container
- Answering or calling from phones while on operation of pest control services.
- Shaking hands with people while on duty
- Usage of hand to clean/rub the nose / mouth while on duty.

2. THROUGH THE SKIN

- Accidental spills on clothing or skin.
- Dusts and sprays setting on skin during application spraying in wind.
- Spraying in wind.
- Splash or spray in eyes and on skin during pouring and mixing
- Contact with treated surfaces as in too early Re-entry of treated fields, Hand Harvesting, Thinning, Cultivating, and Insect or pest scouting.
- Children playing – in discarded containers
- in pesticide mixing or spill areas.
- Maintenance – Repair work on contaminated equipment.

3. BY BREATHING
- Dust, mists, or fumes
- Smoking during application or contaminated smoking supplies
- Do not inhale concentrations which are immediately dangerous to life and health, are unknown or when concentration exceeds 10 times the permissible exposure limit (PEL).
- Failure to use mask containing respirator during all times of exposure may result in sickness or death.
- The air borne contaminants which can be dangerous to your health include those so small that you cannot see them.
- Leave the contaminated area immediately and contact your supervisor if you smell or taste contaminants or if dizziness, irritation, or other distress occurs.

WHAT TO DO

GENERAL

(a) Follow the instructions issued by the manufacturers and/or regulations issued by the authorities.
(b) Do not leave product unattended in the field while you are spraying.
(c) Always keep a bucket with clean water in the working area.
(d) Store insecticides in containers with the original labels. Keep the insecticide out of reach of children and animals, preferably in a locked box with a sign posted such as “DANGEROUS – CHEMICALS – KEEP AWAY”
(e) Mix insecticides in a well-ventilated area, preferably out of doors to avoid or minimize inhalation of dusts and fumes.
(f) When mixing and applying flammable chemicals, avoid the fire hazard associated with tobacco smoking, defective wiring, open flames and hot plates
(g) Do not eat or smoke when working with insecticides. This will reduce opportunities for accidental ingestion of toxic materials.
(h) Mix only as much insecticide as is needed for each application, thus reducing the problems of storing and disposing of excess insecticide. Dispose of excess insecticide carefully so that contamination will not affect man and wildlife.

ENVIRONMENT
(a) Do not contaminate any water sources
(b) Prevent livestock grazing or feeding on fresh sprayed plants
(c) Do not collect any food or feed from freshly sprayed areas.

STORAGE OF PRODUCTS:- Use only original well-labelled containers.
- Store products away from the sun and humidity in a place which must be locked. Key assigned only to authorized individuals.
- Do not smoke in the chemical store room.
- Adequate ventilation is essential and a washable floor desirable.
- Product should be dated upon receipt.

PRODUCT AND CONTANER DISPOSAL:
- Any left over product is to be poured back into its original container. Use a funnel and wear gloves.
- Empty containers completely, Emptied metal container are to be flattened, perforated and disposed of in a land fill approved for pesticides or buried in a safe place away from water supplies. Dispose of plastic containers in an incinerator of land fill. Treat steel drums with kerosene, diesel oil or solvent: rinse well. Ask the dealer about recycling: otherwise crush and bury.
- Do not re-use empty containers for any other purpose

HYGINE:
- Avoid exposure to spray
- Do not carry cigarettes or edibles in your pocket while handling or spraying pesticides – contamination danger
- Refrain from drinking, eating or smoking when handling pesticides.
- Wash face and hands with soap and clean water before drinking or eating
- Wash hands before going to the toilet.
- Avoid spillage of spray liquid on any part of the body
- Take off immediately any clothes contaminated with chemicals.
- Wash exposed parts of the body with soap and plenty of clean water
- Stand up – wind when handling or spraying pesticides.
- After work, thoroughly wash or take a shower, use soap, change into clean clothing.
- Do not call or receive from G. S. M phone while handling or spraying pesticides.
- Minimize or talk less while handling or spraying pesticide.
- Ensure that finger nails are well cut so as not to retain any dirt /dust while handling pesticides especially zinc phosphide.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
- Wear appropriate protection when refilling the spray tank and during product application.
- During preparation of spray mixture.
You must wear Overall, Rubber boots, Rubber gloves, Face shield or half –face respirator + goggels
- Put on Head protection
- The spray operator must equally put on Overall, Rubber boots, Rubber gloves, Half-face respirator and Head protection
- Respirator with filter must be replaced after about 8 hrs wear during application.
- Keep trouser – legs outside the boots in order to avoid drainage of pesticides into the boots.
- Wear long sleeves over the gloves in order to avoid drainage of pesticides into the glove.
- Wash gloves with water and detergent before removing
- Do not use cotton or leather gloves. These are more hazards than no protection. They absorb pesticides.
- Change into clean clothes after finishing spraying each day.
- Wash protective clothing daily with hot water and use detergent (soap)
- Wash protective clothes separately from family or personal clothes.
- Defective clothing provides inadequate protection, discard and replace defective clothing.

WHAT TO DO IF BREATHING CEASES
- Move the patient well away from any contaminated areas and from the vicinity of pesticides
- Wash exposed parts of the body with plenty of fresh clean water and soap. Put on clean clothing
- Put patient on his side; tilt the head back.
- Call a doctor as quickly as possible, but do not abandon false objects from the mouth (chewing gun, false teeth etc).
- Artificial respiration should take precedence over all other first aid measures if breathing ceases. Do not waste time.
- For an Adult:
(1) Open your mouth wide and take a deep breath
(2) Pinch the casualty’s nostrils together with your fingers to prevent air from escaping.
(3) Seal your lips round his mouth
(4) Blow into his lungs until the chest rises
(5) Then remove your mouth, and watch the chest fall
(6) Repeat and continue inflations at your natural rates of breathing.

COVULSIONS OCCUR
(1) Ensure that the patient can breathe adequately. If necessary pull the tongue forward to prevent it blocking the throat
(2) Do not give anything by mouth to an unconscious person
(3) Keep the patient warm and dry

PESTICIDE IS SPLASHED IN THE EYE
Wash the eye with clean water immediately. Speed is essential to prevent injury to the eye. Use large amounts of clean water to gently irrigate the eye for at least 15 mins. In addition, boracic acid solution may be beneficial.

PESTICIDE IS SPILLED ON THE SKIN
(1) Remove all contaminated clothing. Cover the patient with a clean blanket.
(2) Wash the skin thoroughly with plenty of soap and water immediately and repeat again
(3) Clean under finger and toe nails, and clean the hair.
(4) In addition wash contaminated skin with rubbing alcohol to remove any remaining pesticide.
(5) Put on complete clean clothing
(6) Decontaminate protective clothing with hot water and soap. Wash cap/hat, gloves and boots (both inside and outside).

EQUIPMENT SELECTION

A PAPER PRESENTED BY SANITARIAN M.A. SOMOYE AT THEMATIC TRAINING ON PEST MANAGEMENT CONTROL HELD AT FILBON HOTEL, UPPER CHIME AVENUE ENUGU ON 6TH SEPTEMBER, 2012.


Four key factors should be considered when selecting insecticide application equipment:
(1). Will it do the Job?
Each piece of equipment should be moderate to operate. It is good economy to buy the best equipment available. Simplicity of operation and ease of maintenance should be key factors in making a selection.

(2). Is it safe?
Safety should be a prime consideration in all insect control operations. Hazard to the equipment operator, the general public and the environment should be considered.
(3). Is it of good quality?
Poor quality equipment may do great harm to the public relations aspect of insect control programme.

(4). Is it expensive?
Purchase of low quality items may save initially, but the long-range expensive cost should be weighed against such factors as durability of equipment, availability of spare parts and repair facilities and degree of care that can be expected from workers who use it.

The equipments are sub-divided into four categories viz a viz:
(1). Hand Sprayers: which comprise of
(a). The Compressed air sprayers
(b). Aerosol Dispenser
(c). Hand pump atomizer
(d). Pistol sprayer
(e). Knapsack sprayer
(f). Trombone sprayer
(g). Hand duster
(h). Bulb duster

I will discuss on few of these machines especially the most pronounced among them.
THE COMPRESSED AIR SPRAYER:
This is the mainstay of most public health insect control projects. It is used particularly to apply residual sprays for mosquito, fly, and flea control, larvicides for mosquito and fly control, spot treatment for cockroaches, ants, ticks, bugs and many other types of household insects.
The compreseed air sprayer consists of a tank, air pump, outlet pipe, spray hose, valve, ward and nozzle.

THE AEROSOL DISPENSER OR “bug bomb”, is more widely used by the general public than any other type of insecticide applicator.
Insecticide aerosol dispensers are sold in two general types: (a). Small low pressure, disposable “bug bombs” used by the average householder, and (b) larger high-pressure, re-fill able aerosol dispensers used in some public health programme and by pest control operators.
The small low-pressure aerosol bomb consists of a can with a discharge valve and nozzle at the top, and a tube extending from the valve to the bottom of the can.
The insecticide in a concentrated oil solution is mixed with a propellant (usually the nontoxic gas Freon in liquid form) and placed in the can at the time it is assembled.
When the discharge valve is pressed, propellants gas within the can forces the insecticide – propelland mixture through the nozzle and it is atomized into spray.
One of the most common types of bug bombs for flies and mosquitoes contains prethrum, allenthrin, or synthetic pyrethrum for quick knockdown , a synergist such as piperonyl butoxide, and a synthetic insecticide such as methoxychlor or the kill.
THE HAND PUMP ATOMIZER or “flit gun” is a familiar household item. A piston pump forces s stream of air over the tip of the siphon tube. This creates a partial vacuum in the tube. The insecticide is sucked from the tank attached to the pump into the airstreams, which breaks the insecticide into spray.

There are two types of hand pump atomizers.
The intermittent hand sprayer produces a spray of insecticide only while the pump plunger is being pushed forward.
The continuous hand sprayer forces air into the tank to develop and maintain a constant pressure and deliver a continuous spray discharge. Pneumatic paint sprayers operate upon the same basic principle as the “flit gun” but are powered by an electric or gasoline motor. They are sometimes used for space spraying in larger buildings where hand equipment is inadequate.
THE PISTOL SPRAYER is very much like the “gun” used for oiling automobile springs. Pulling the trigger on the gun produces a fine, solid stream of insecticide. It is especially valuable when small amounts of solution or emulsion need to be applied to cracks and crevices in buildings for cockroach, bugs and ant control.
It has been used to apply small amounts of insecticide to collections of water in small containers, such as tin cans, saucers under flowerpots, old tyres or water drums.
They were used extensively on the Aedes aegypti eradication programme and may play a part in many urban mosquito control programs.

THE KNAPSACK SPRAYER is borne on the back of the operator, has shoulder straps so that it can be carried on both shoulders. A simple diaphragm or piston pump and a mechanical agitator are mounted inside the tank and actuated by a lever worked by the operator’s right hand.
The insecticide is under liquid pressure during each stroke of the pump. Knapsack sprayers are used chiefly in treatment of small garden, and to a lesser extent for mosquito larviciding in very swampy areas where it is difficult to pump up a compressed air sprayer.
THE BULB DUSTER is also designed for careful in door work. A 4” rubber bulb is filled with a screw cap containing a dust nozzle. After the bulb is filled with dust, and the cap replaced, hand pressure on the bulb disperses the dust.

2. POWER SPRAYERS
(a). Hydraulic power sprayers
(b). Boat mounted power duster
Hydraulic Power Sprayers, originally designed for use on field crops, orchard and shade trees and live stock, are frequently used by public health workers to apply insecticides as residual sprays to control adult mosquitoes and flies as laravicides to control mosquito and fly larva, and as area treatments to control fleas, ticks and chiggers. The spray liquid is pressurized by means of a power – driven hydraulic pump with suitable regulators provided to maintain the desired pressure.

BOAT MOUNTED POWER DUSTER is used in some mosquito control districts. These machines have several advantages: they can be used from the open water side of mosquito – breeding places, they have a wide effective swath over water with only floating or low surface vegetatio., and they do not require access roads in difficult, swampy terrain.

MIST AND FOG APPLICATORS
Mist and fog applications are used for space spraying with contact insecticides. Mist and fog machines control insects by he same principle as that utilized by hand sprayers and aerosol dispensers – contact killing.
Mists- are composed of droplets 50 – 100 microns in diameter, particles of sufficient size to settle 4o the earth fairly rapidly, but remain a 200 – 300 foot swath with only a light wind to promote distribution. This settling will occur despite the fact that there may be thermal air currents rising from the heated earth during the daytime.

Fogs - Are composed of much finer droplets, from 0.1 to 50 microns in diameter, that remain suspended for a long period of time, settling only in relatively still air. These particles are likely to rise in the daytime and produce little or no kill of insects during this period.
The above considerations indicate that the moist blowers are especially suitable for daytime operations such as fly control and that fog applicators are most effective during the evening, night and early morning hours, particularly for adult mosquito control.
The chief advantages of mist and fog applicators are (1) Economy of operation due to their low manpower requirements. (2) Ability to apply small amount of concentrated materials to a large area and (3) Large portions of a city may be treated in a short period of time during disasters and in period of high insect abundance.
The chief disadvantage in their use for treating urban are as is the fact cars and windows may be spotted by the insecticide and shrubbery may be burned by the oil if machines are not properly operated.

OTHER APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
Pouring of chemicals may be of value under certain conditions. Measured amounts of insecticide may be poured into fast – flowing streams for black fly control. A sprinkler can is useful for mosquito larviciding of catch basins.
DRAGGING bags of chemical through water, or laying the bags in moving water may serve to control black fly larvae or other water – dwelling forms. Calculations should be made to assure adequate control without damage to fish or other wild life, and also not pollute human water supplies.
DRIP CANS are superior to pouring or dragging for water treatment because insecticide dosage can be controlled more exactly. They are better to use in moving than in still water.

PAINT BRUSHES are very effective for applying controlled amounts of insecticides to areas where insects hide and run.
They are especially suited for controlling household insects such as cockroaches and termites. There is less change of damaging materials such as synthetic floor tiles or painted woodwork when applying insecticide with a paintbrush than with a sprayer.

POISON BAITS are used occasionally by public health workers. Chicken watering fountains containing sugar water and an organic phosphorus compound such as dichlovors are used to control flies in chicken houses. Shallow trays covered with hardware cloth containing granular fly baits may be placed in areas with high fly populations such as dairy barns.
GELATINOUS CAPSULES (“TOSSITS” containing mosquito larvicide are useful for immediate treatment of small bodies of water. Inspectors can easily use them, saving the expense of sending out a control crew.

PRESSURE INJECTORS to inject phosphide into egg, very useful in baiting snakes.
RESIN STRIPS containing dich (or DDVP) are used to control insects in buildings, such as cockroaches under sinks, silver fish, clothes moths and carpet beetles in closets. These strips are used at a rate of one strip per 1000 cubic feet. They are also used to control mosquito larvae in catch basins.
They are effective for 3 to 4 months dripping cotton cord in organic phosphorus insecticides such as parathion, diazinon, or ronnel. When installed in diary barns, loading docks, and similar situations at a rate of 30 linear feet per 100 square feet of floor space, fly cords often provide effective fly control for 3 months or longer.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF INSECTICIDAL EQUIPMENT
Manufacturer of insecticidal equipment usually provide information on the care and maintenance of each type of applicator. Follow these instructions for lubrication, operation, and maintenance.
All applicator equipment requires diligence if it is to be kept operating properly. Many complaints about equipment malfunction are traceable to improper maintenance.
HAND SPRAYERS are generally a greater maintenance problem than dusters. Several basic rules should be followed in the care of a sprayer.
1. Handle it carefully
2. Keep it clean
3. Strain formulations through cheesecloth to keep particles out of it.
4. Rinse it out thoroughly after every use
5. Every evening after use rinse it and then pump 1/3 gallon of clean water through it.
6. Do not let water freeze in it.
7. Every 3 months:
a. Disassemble it completely.
b. Put small metal parts into kerosene allow to set, then clean with a small bottlebrush.
c. Soak nozzles, wands, and tank with trisodium phosphate solution, then clean with a scrubbing brush, then rinse thoroughly.
d. Replace worn gaskets, broken parts etc.
e. Reassemble it.
f. Pump 2 changes of water (with 1 cup of vinegar per gallon of water) through it.
g. Pump clean water through it.
h. Oil certain parts, as in the spray gun.

POWER EQUIPMENT should be covered when not in use.
Have regular preventive maintenance on all motors.
Replace damaged parts immediately.
Allow only experienced personnel to operate power equipment.

CHEMICAL CONTROL
TYPES OF INSECTICIDES
An insecticide is a substance used for killing insects and their close relatives, ticks, mites and spiders. A perfect insecticide, would be: (1) highly toxic to harmful insects and related arthropods; (2) harmless to man and to beneficial animals, insects and plants; (3) attractive to insects and not unpleasant to humans; (4) inexpensive, easy to produce and readily available; (5) Chemically stable for residual applications, (6) Unstable for use in aerial applications that will not grossly contaminate the environment, killing insects rapidly and breaking down subsequently into harmless compounds, (7) nonflammable, (8) no corrosive (9) no staining and (10) easily prepared into any desired formulation.

Insecticides are classified traditionally according to the way they kill insects: as
(1). STOMACH POISONS must be swallowed to cause death. Poison baits are stomach poisons mixed with materials such as sugar to attract insects.

(2). CONTACT INSECTICIDES - Penetrate the body wall or the tarsi of arthropods. They include residual sprays applied to walls and ceilings of building to kill insects that rest on the treated surface, aerosols and space sprays that adhere to and kill flying insects, and larvicide’s that penetrate the tracheae and body walls to kill insect larvae.

FUMIGANTS - are volatile chemicals whose vapors enter insects bodies through the breathing pores (spiraclås) and through body surfaces.
Methyl bromide, for example, is a nonflammable, deeply penetrating fumigant used to kill insects in fabrics, foods and other stored products.

DESSICANTS – are sorptive dusts, which scratch or abrade the body wall, or absorb its fatty, or waxy, protective outer coating, causing the insect to loose body fluids and die by dehydration.
The insecticides used to kill arthropods of public health importance may be divided conveniently into six groups viz a viz:
1. The minerals – fuel oil, kerosene, sulfur and borax – contain some of the oldest insecticides still widely used.
2. The botanicals – pyrethrum and rotenone which were in use before 1900 still are favorites because they pose no problem of toxic residues. Synthetic pyrethroids play an important role because they can be manufactured and standardized in quantity.
3. The Chlorimated hydrocarbons - such as D.D.T, lindane, and chlordane, were the most widely used insecticides from the 1940’s through the 1960’s. however, problems of resistance and environmental contamination arose and the use of this group of toxicants is now limited.
4. The Organophosphates – such as malathion and diazinon, have generally replaced the chlorinated hydrocarbons because they control resistant insects they are biodegradable, and do not contaminate the environment.
5. The Carbamates – such as carbaryl and propoxur are a relatively new class of contact insecticides, which may supplement the organophosphates.
6. The Fumigants – include well known materials such as naphthalene and Para dichlorobenzene used by the general public, and other very toxic materials such as methyl bromide or hydrogen cyanide which are so dangerous that they should be used only by specially trained personnel.

DERATTISATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF PEST & VECTOR CONTROL

BY SANITARIAN OMO’BA ’FEMI DAINI

A PAPER PRESENTED AT THEMATIC TRAINING ON PEST MANAGEMENT CONTROL HELD AT FILBON HOTEL, UPPER CHIME AVENUE ENUGU ON 6TH SEPTEMBER, 2012.

Introduction:-
The term “pest” refers broadly to any organism that is troublesome, noxious or destructive. Pest includes a variety of birds species, mites, ticks, nematodes, ants, swaps, bees locust, termites, plant and animal pathogens and parasite, nuisance wild animals (e.g. venomous snakes and Elephants) Rats and Mice, snails, cattle, weeds etc.
For the purpose of this lecture our concentration will be on the Pest widely known as Rat because of it strategic significance in pest and vector control and the Public Health importance.

RATS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS:-
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. “True rats” are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and brown rat, Rattus norvegicus. Many members of other rodent genera and families are also referred to as rats, and share many characteristics with true rats.

Rats are typically distinguished from mice by their size; rats are generally large muroid rodents, while mice are generally small muroid rodents. The muroid family is very large and complex, and the common terms rat and mouse are not taxonomically specific. Generally, when someone discovers a large muroid, its common name includes the term rat. While if it is small, the name includes the term mouse. Scientifically the terms are not confined to members of the Rattus and Mus genera, for example, the pack rat and cotton mouse.

The best-known rat species are the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). The group is generally known as the Old World rats or true rats, and originated in Asia. Rats are bigger than most Old World mice, which are their relatives, but seldom weigh over 500 grams (1.1 lb) in the wild.

The term “rat” is also used in the names of other small mammals which are not true rats. Examples include the North American pack rats, a number of species loosely called kangaroo rats, and others. Rats such as the bandicoot pat (Bandicota bengalensis) are murine rodents related to true rats, but are not members of the genus Rattus. Male rats are called bucks unmated females are called does, pregnant or parent females are called dams, and infants are called kittens or pups. A group of rats is either referred to as a pack or a mischief.


The common species are opportunistic survivors and often live with and near humans; therefore, they are known as commensals. They may cause substantial food losses, especially in developing countries. However, the widely distributed and problematic commensal species of rats are a minority in this diverse genus. Many species of rats are island endemics and some have become endangered due to habitat loss or competition with the brown, black or Polynesian rat.

RAT HABITAT-
Rats are either terrestrial or arboreal in nature, although rats preferring one habitat are capable of inhabiting others. The Norway rat and roof rat are the two most common North American rat species. They are terrestrial and arboreal, respectively.
Norway rats are most commonly burrowers. They build their nests outside the walls of homes or in various clumps of vegetation. Norway rats may also construct their homes beneath the edges of sidewalks or patios.
As is implied by their name, roof rats prefer arboreal habitats. They live in yucca, palm and cypress trees, as well as in elevated areas of human homes. Roof rats can be found living in attics, rafters, eaves and on roofs. They may also choose to nest in non-arboreal vegetation, such as shrubs, honeysuckle and tall grasses.

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE OF RATS:-
Wild rodents, including rats, can carry many different zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira, Toxoplasma gondii, and Campylobacter. The Black Death is traditionally believed to have been caused by the micro-organism Yersinia pestis, carried by the tropical rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis) which preyed on black rats living in European cities during the epidemic outbreaks of the Middle Ages; these rats were used as transpdort hosts. Other zoonotic diseases linked to pest rodents include classical swine fever and foot-and-mouth disease.
The multimammate rats transmits Lassa fever, a fatal disease that has caused several epidemic episodes in some parts of the country.
The average lifespan of any give rat depends on which species is being discussed, but many only live about a year due to predation.

Specially bred rats have been kept as pets at least since the late 19th century. Pet rats are typically variants of the species brown rat, but black rats and giant pouched rats are also known to be kept. Pet rats behave differently from their wild counterparts depending on how many generations they have been kept as pets. Pet rats do not pose any more of a health risk than pets such as cats or dogs. Tamed rats are generally friendly and can be taught to perform selected behaviours.

Subjects for scientific research
A laboratory rat strain, known as a Zucker rat, is bred to be genetically prone to diabetes, the same metabolic disorder found among humans.
In 1895, Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts (United State) established a population of domestic albino brown rats to study the effects of diet and for other physiological studies. Over the years rates have been used in many experimental studies, which have added to our understanding of genetics, diseases, the effects of drugs, and other topics that have provided a great benefit for the health and well-being of humankind. Laboratory rats have also proved valuable in psychological studies of learning and other mental processes (Barnett, 2002), as well as to understand group behavior and overcrowding (with the work of John B. Calhoun on behavioral sink). A 2007 study found rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only documented in humans and some primates.

Domestic rats differ from wild rats in many ways. They are calmer and less likely to bite; they can tolerate greater crowding; they breed earlier and produce more offspring; and their brains, livers, kidneys, adrenal glands, and hearts are smaller (Barnett 2002).

Brown rats are often used as model organisms for scientific research. Since the publication of the rate genome sequence, and other advances, such as the creation of a rat SNP chip and the production of knockout rats, the laboratory rat has become a useful genetic tool, although not as popular as mice. When it comes to conducting tests related to intelligence, learning, and drug abuse, rats are a popular choice due to their high intelligence, ingenuity, aggressiveness and adaptability. Their psychology, in many ways, seems to be similar to humans. Entirely new breeds or “lines” of brown rats, such as the Wistar rat, have been bred for use in laboratories. Much of the genome of Rattus norvegicus has been sequence.

DERATTISATION:-
Derattisation is one of the various methods of disinfestations. Derattisation can simply be described as every controlled measures taken or adopted in the elimination extermination or control of rats in an environment where they are not wanted or desired. There are various methods involved in derattisation and the use or adoption of any is based on:
(i) Purpose (ii) Types of rat (iii) level of infestation (iv) Habitat.

METHODS OF RAT CONTROL:-
(a) Chemical Control: - This involves the use of Chemicals known as Rodenticides (Rat Poison) in exterminating rats. Rodenticides can either be “single feed baits or Anti coagulants” they are poison that have been developed specifically to kill rats and mice. They consist of first generation poisons such as Brodifacoum, Bromadiolome and Difenacoum.
Rodenticides are a category of pest control chemicals intended to kill rodents.
Single feed baits are chemicals sufficiently dangerous that the first dose is sufficient to kill.

The use of rodenticide baits for the control of rats is the only method by which most amateurs can be reasonably certain of eliminating a colony quickly and completely. With rats around, you should put aside any negative feelings you might have about using poisons for the sake of achieving swift and complete control. (The only exception to this advice is where rats are living inside your home, when a poisoned rat dying under the floor in the wall can produce a vile smell) In this case break back traps should be used as a first method of control.
Rodents are difficult to kill with poisons because their feeding habits reflect their place as scavengers. They will eat a small bit of something and wait, and if they don’t get sick, they continue. An effective rodenticide must be tasteless and odorless in lethal concentrations, and have a delayed effect.

Anticoagulants are defined as chronic (death occurs after one to two weeks after ingestion of the lethal dose, rarely sooner), single-dose (second generation) or multiple-dose (first generation) rodenticides, acting by effective blocking of the vitamin K cycle, resulting in inability to produce essential blood-clothing factors – mainly coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII (reconverting).
In addition to this specific metabolic disruption, massive toxic doses of 4-hydroxycoumarin and indandione anticoagulants cause damage to tiny blood vessels (capillaries), increasing their permeability, causing diffuse internal bleeding (haemorrhagia). These effects are gradual, developing over several days, but claims that they are painless are unfounded: in humans both warfarin poisoning and hemophilia commonly cause moderate to severe pain from bleeding into muscles and joints. In the final phase of the intoxication, the exhausted rodent collapses in hypovolemic circulatory shock or severe anemia and dies calmly. However, because of the duration of discomfort and pain before death it has been suggested that the use of rodenticides can be considered as inhumane.

The main benefit of anticoagulants over other poisons is that the time taken for the poison to induce death means that the rats do not associate the damage with their feeding habits.
• First generation rodenticidal anticoagulants generally have shorter elimination half-lives, require higher concentrations (usually between 0.005% and 0.1%) and consecutive intake over days in order to accumulate the lethal dose, and less toxic than second generation agents.

• Second generation agents are far more toxic than first generation. They are generally applied in lower concentrations in baits – usually on the order of 0.001% to 0.005% - are lethal after a single ingestion of bait and are also effective against strains of rodents that became resistant to first generation anticoagulants; thus, the second generation anticoagulants are sometimes referred to as “superwarfains”.

Class Examples
* First generation: warfarin, coumatetraly Coumarings/4- Hydroxycoumar * Second generation: difenacoum, brodufacouM flocoumafen and bronmadiolone diphacinone, chlorophacinone, pindone

1,3-indandiones These are harder to group by generation. According to some sources, the indandiones are considered second generation. However, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, examples of first generation agents include chlorophacinone and diphacinone.

Other Difethialone is considered a second generation anticoagulant rodenticide.

Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1-3 days after bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually zinc phosphide) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large infestation by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amount of zinc phosphide feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents, that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2-4 days). These methods of alternating rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the ara, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e. rodents feed on it readily).

Zinc phosphide is typically added to redent bait in a concentration of 0.75% to 2.0.0% to 2.0%. the baits have strong pungent garlic-like odor characteristic for phosphine liberated by hydrolysis. The odor attracts (or, at least, does not repulse) rodents, but has repulsive effect on other mammals. Birds, notably wild turkeys are not sensitive to the smell, and will feed on the bait, and thus become collateral damage.
The tablets or pellets (usually aluminium, calcium or magnesium phosphide for fumigation/gassing) may also contain other chemicals which evolve ammonia, which helps to reduce the potential for spontaneous ignition or explosion of the phosphine gas.

Phosphides do not accumulate in the tissues of poisoned animals so the risk of secondary poisoning is low.
Phosphides are rather fast – acting rat poisons, resulting in the rats dying usually in open areas, instead of in the affected buildings.
Phosphides used as rodenticides are:
• aluminium phosphide (fumigant only)
• calcium phosphide (fumigant only)
• magnesium phosphide (fumigant only)


• zinc phosphide (in baits)
Other Chemical poisons include:
• ANTU (a-naphthylthiourea; specific against Brown rat, Rattus norvegicus
• Arsenic
• Barium (a toxic metal) compound
Barium carbonate
• Bromethalin (which affects the nervous system, no antidote
• Chloralose (narcotic acting condensation product of chloral and glucose)
• Crimidine (2-chloro-N, N,6-trimethypyrimidin-4-amine; a synthetic convulsant poison, antivitamin B6)
• 1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol (“Gliftor” in the former USSR)
• Endrin (organochlorine cyclodiene insecticide, used in the past for extermination of voles in fields during winter by aircraft spraying)

• Fluoroacetamide (“1081”)
• Phosacetim (a delayed-action organoophosphorous rodenticide)
• White phosphorus
• Pyrinuron (an urea derivative)
• Scilliroside
• Sodium fluoroacetate(“1080)
• Strychnine
• Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine (“tetramine”)
• Thallium (a toxic heavy metal) compounds
• Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide absorbed in an inert carrier)

These are poisons that have been developed specifically to kill rats and mice. They consist of ‘first generation’ poisons such as Warfarin and Coumatetraly and ‘second generation’ poisons such as Brodifacoum, Bromadiolone and Difenacoum.

Most of our rodenticides contain either Bromadiolone or Difenacoum, which are anti-coagulants.
These poisons affect the rodents blood clotting response, so after a few days the rodents will die as a result of internal hemorrhaging. The poison effectively thins the blood to the extent that blood seeps internally from tiny blood vessels and organs quickly resulting in heart failure which ultimately kills the rat.

You may know someone who takes minute amounts of prescription warfarin (a first generation rodenticide) in order to thin their blood to help prevent strokes. Strokes
-8-
are caused by thick blood clotting and stopping the flow of blood to vital areas like the brain. Often people under this medication can bruise very easily and this is because the tiny blood veins next to their skin break easily when damaged and blood seeps from the veins causing the bruising. These people are completely unaware of this process in their bodies in exactly the same way as the rodent is completely unaware of the process in action.
The rodents feel fine, suffering no pain and therefore they continue to feed as normal, consuming a lethal dose before succumbing to the effects of the poison. This is important, as rats in particular will quickly stop eating anything that they associate with danger, in the latter stages of poisoning, the rodents feel lethargic and tend to stay in their nests, where most of them die. The occasional one may die above ground, and you should always search for bodies whilst you are conducting a poisoning campaign.

Bait stations are a highly effective way of swiftly dealing with mice in buildings or in the home. Bait should always be placed within approved bait stations and difenacoum is the bait of choice. However, if you prefer not to use rodenticides, mice-unlike rats-are very easy to trap and trapping is generally our preferred method of control.

(b) TRAPPINGS:-
Break back rat traps are similar in appearance to normal break back mouse traps, but much more powerful. They are cheap to buy and easy to set.
Rats are notoriously difficult to trap. It is most unlikely that even a professional will manage to trap all the rats in a colony because, apart from being very cautious of new objects in their territory, they also learn very quickly from other rat’s experiences. So, if see a rat being caught in a trap, the older rats in particular tend to avoid similar situations and quickly become ‘trap shy’.
Leave the traps unset but baited for a couple of days before you activate the traps. You should quickly catch two or three, but after that things will get difficulty.

Mice are inquisitive creatures and will quickly check out any new objects in their territory. They don’t seem to learn from the experiences of their chums so they are amongst the easiest of all creatures to trap. The key is to use lots of traps, two in a single kitchen cupboard, four under the sink, ten in loft, those sorts of numbers. Bait the traps with a little peanut butter and you are off. Check them twice a day and don’t be surprised if you catch a lot of mice, there are probably many more than you at first think.

Spring traps like the Mark 4 Fenn trap can be quite effective when set correctly. They are much more powerful than the break back traps and must be handled with great care. Always remember to flip on the safety catch until you have the trap in the right position and then flip off the catch with a long stick or similar. By law these traps may only be used when covered by a tunnel to prevent access by cats and other animals. They are usually set with the treadle plate flush to the ground and then camouflaged with a small amount of soil. They should be secured to the ground by their chain.

Everyone seems to be selling these sticky glue traps but the is rarely any justification for using this inhumane method of control. Have a look at our video vault to see a rat being caught in a glue trap. The glue boards do cause the animal considerable stress and suffering.
Electronic traps do work, and kill rats. However, they are expensive and they will only ever take out the occasional bold rat. They won’t kill any more than cage or break-back traps and they require expensive batteries to run them.

This is the way to catch rats in electronic kill traps.
• Don’t expect these units to deal with an entire colony because they won’t do so any more than any other live or kill trap will succeed.
• For an occasional intruder they work OK.
• Set the trap pretty much anywhere that the rat frequents. Bait it with peanut butter stuck to the back wall of the trap. Don’t switch the trap on until the rat has started to take the peanut butter. Next evening switch the trap on.
• The next day you should have your rat, and you can be sure it will not have suffered for long, a couple of minutes at the most.
• I would still rather use a break back trap (cheaper and quicker to kill).
Rats are extremely cautions of traps of any kind; they just seem to know when danger is around.
You may catch a few rats with cages, provided you follow this guide but I can pretty much guarantee that you will not catch the whole colony.
- Use several cage traps unless you are just dealing with one or two invaders.
- Place the traps in position, open, unset, but baited and leave for several days until rats are feeding confidently from inside the cages.


Set all the traps one evening.
Next day you should have a rat or two.
- Continue to bait and set the traps, but if no success start again leaving the traps open but baited.
- Be patient, this exercise can take several weeks, by which time you could have safely and humanely eliminated the whole colony by using poison baits.
If you chose to use cage traps, I assume that is because you don’t want to kill the rat but would rather release it into the fields.
When you release the rat, make sure that it is several miles away because the moment it is out of the cage is only intention it’s to get back home – and it will soon work out in which direction home is.

On its way back home it will almost certainly die from stress, starvation or it will become a meal for some predator just looking for a little lost creature. It will not be allowed to join any other rat colonies; rather it will be viciously driven from each rat territory it crosses on its way home.

Catch and release is the least humane and most ineffectual option for controlling a small colony of rats, and is utterly useless with a large colony.
Mice, on the other hand are most obliging and will readily go into any sort of live capture trap. Bait it with a bit of peanut butter, check twice a day and just keep trapping and removing.

The same applies to catch and release mice at to rats above. It is not humane, but if it makes you feel better, well at least it will be providing some predator out there with an easy meal, so you can feel good about that.
Make sure you release a mile or so from home or you will just keep on catching the same mice as they wearily arrive home.
Check your traps twice a day don’t forget them and leave the occupants to die of starvation.

© ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL:-
Control of rats in our premises can be effected environmentally. This involves the control of all factors that may encourage the breeding or propagation of rats and mice in our environment.

Such factors include:-
- Maintaining a very clean environment devoid of overgrown weeds
- Proper stacking/storage of food items in our environment
- Grating of entrance doors with metals to discourage gnawing for entrance by rats.
- Proper disposal of our domestic refuse
- All holes/hollows/channels/drainages within our environment should be properly constructed to discourage burrowing by rats or mice.
- Indiscriminate stacking of unserviceable articles/junks in our environment should be discouraged.
- Screening of our windows to disallow rat entrance etc.

(d) BIOLOGICAL CONTROL:-
This in recent times have not proved to be very effective in our living environment. The method involves the use of Predators (e.g. cats) who feed on rats to exterminate them. It is now a common occurrence that rats and cats are co-habitors of living premises.

CONCLUSION:-
Extermination or control of rat is inevitable particularly when their natural habitat is being threatened day in and out due to infrastructural developments. There is hardly a premises without raes particularly in the cities where ‘Rats’ are now being seen diurnally as against their nocturnal nature.
This poses a challenge to the Environmental Health Practitioners who are professional in pest and Vector Control.








REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Leirs H (2009). “The Year of the Rat ends: time to fight hunger!”
2. Meerburg BG, Singleton GR, Kijlstra A (2009). “Rodent-borne disease and their risks for public health”.
3. Merk Veterinary Manual Global Zoonoses Table” Retrieved 2006-11-24.
4. Rats Capable Of Reflecting On Mental Processes
5. Gibbs RA et al: Genome sequence of the Brown Norway rat yields insights into mammalian evolution,: Nature. 2004 April 1; 428(6982):475-6
6. “Individual differences and a spatial learning factor in two strains of mice (Mus musculus)’
7. “Novelty-Seeking in Outbred Mice Covaries with General Learning Abilities Irrespective of Stress Reactivity, Emotionality and Physical Attributes”
8. “Domain-Specific and Domain-General Learning Factors are Expressed in Genetically Heterogeneous CD-1 mice”
9. National Environmental Sanitation Policy & guidelines developed by the
Federal Ministry of Environment, Abuja.